dialegomai : online resources
your link to online resources

Roger Schremmer
  7 April 2015

Biblical Resources: The Basics

Bibles (English, mixed) Bible Software Daily Devotions Reading the Bible in a Year

Biblical Resources: Intermediate

Dictionaries, Cyclopedias, Encyclopedias Historical Context & Commentaries Dead Sea Scrolls & Papyri

Biblical Resources: Advanced

Ancient Language & Fonts Bibles (Hebrew / Aramaic, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic) Lexicons, Grammar & Learning Guides (Hebrew / Aramaic, Greek) Textual Criticism & Exegetical Resources

Apologetics (vs. Early Schisms & Heresies)

Writings of the Early Church (before 31 October 1517)

Apologetics (vs. Modern Schisms & Heresies)

Christian Apologetics (addressing quasi- and pseudo- Christian religions)

Apologetics (vs. Unbelief & Other Religions)

Christian Apologetics (addressing beliefs of non- Christian religions) Creation & Science, et al. (Intelligent Design and Creationism)

Councils, Canons & Statements of Faith

Councils, Canons & Statements of Faith

Christian Denominations

Confessional Lutheranism (1530) Church of England (1534) Calvinism & Reformed (1536) Baptists (ca. 1609)

Miscellaneous: Useful Resources

Family Resources Internet Resources

 

English Language Resources

ESL Resources Dictionaries & Encyclopedias English Grammar Academic Resources

Philosophy: The Art of Reasoning

History of Philosophy Logic & Fallacies Dictionaries & Encyclopedias

History: Past & Present

General Information Ancient & Early History Historical Context (Bible & Early Church) Myths, Fables & Fairy Tales

Archæology

General Information Old Testament & Intertestimental New Testament & Early Church Other Ancient Civilizations Fossils & Living Fossils Interesting Finds

Other Side of the Fence

Pseudepigraphal & Non- Canonical Writings (before 1000 C.E.) Modern Schisms & Heresies (beliefs of quasi- and pseudo- Christian religions) Unbelief & Other Religions (beliefs of non-Christian religions) Creation & Science, et al. (Darwinism & Neo- Darwinism)

Catechisms: Teaching the Faith

Catechisms

Christian Denominations

Eastern Church (326) Roman Catholicism (1563) Anabaptists (1525) Arminianism (1619) United Church (1925, Canada; 1957, U.S.A.)

Significant Issues

Alleged Errors Dispensationalism

 

2003 – 2015

dialegomai: online resources

copyright © 2003– 2015
Roger Schremmer, B.A., M.Div.

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last updated in April 2015

 

Biblical Resources: The Basics

BibleGateway – NIV (1984), TNIV (2005), NIV (2010), NASB, MSG, AMP, NLT, KJV, ESV, CEV, NKJV, 21KJV, ASV, YLT, DARBY, NLV, HCSV, NIRV, WYCLIFFE, WE (NT), NIV–UK. Also available: Audio Bibles (Old Testament: ESV, KJV, NASB, NIV, TNIV; New Testament: CEV, ESV, KJV, NASB, NIV, TNIV) and translations into other languages

Biblia.com – © Logos Bible Software. "Biblia.com is your place for Bible study online. Part of a family of services from Logos Bible Software, it offers free access to a collection of Bibles and Bible reference works, with an easy user interface and powerful search engine." Everyone has access to numerous translations of Scripture and resources, but people who have purchased packages, libraries or books for Logos can logon using their Logos.com account and access most of their books online (from any computer). "Biblia.com is designed to make it easy to use a Bible side- by- side with helps and reference books. But underneath it is built on the same powerful platform as Logos Bible Software 4, the world's leading Bible software. Logos has been developing Bible software for nearly two decades. Today it is a team of more than 170 people offering more than 10,000 titles for Bible study; Biblia.com is our way of delivering all that experience and content to users who prefer a web interface." Quotes taken from a link that no longer exists

The Unbound Bible – NASB, NRSV, KJV, ASV, BEB, DARBY, DOUAY– RHEIMS, WEBSTER, WEYMOUTH (NT), WEB, YLT. Also available: Original languages (Hebrew: Westminster Liningrad Codex, Aleppo Codex; Greek: Byzantine / Majority Text, Textus Receptus, Tischendorf 8th ed., Westcott & Hort, Septuagint (OT)), and translations into other languages

Bible Study Tools – NASB, ASV, ESV, NKJV, KJV, HCSV, TMB, NIV, NLT, NRSV, RSV, GNT, DOUAY– RHEIMS, MSG, CJB, NCV, GW, HNV, WEB, BBE, YLT, TNIV, NIRV, DARBY, WEBSTER, WEYMOUTH (NT). Also available: Latin Vulgate. This was originally a part of Crosswalk.com, but has since been redesigned and made its own website

Blue Letter Bible – KJV, NKJV, NLT, NIV, ESV, NASB, RSV, ASV, YLT, DARBY, WEB, HNV. Also available: Latin Vulgate

 


ESV Study Bible – ESV. © 2008 Crossway Bibles. Contains 2007 text, word / phrase search, and the voice of David Cochran Heath to read Scripture passages. Those who purchased the ESV Study Bible also have access to the study notes, articles, maps, charts and illustrations that appear in the printed copy

NET Bible Study Environment –  © 1996– 2011 Biblical Studies Press (BSP), L.L.C. and the authors. An outstanding resource featuring the NET Bible. "Features Include: Read the Biblical Text and the Associated NET Notes. Add your own notes to the selected chapter or verse (on the Notes Tab). Bookmark and label chapters and verses for future reference. Double click any word and choose to search the bible / Bible.org or look it up in dictionaries. Read the original Hebrew / Greek (mouse over words to see definition and part of speech in the bottom panel; click to lock in this information). View articles on the current passage. Click a verse to see it in parallel in multiple translation (on the Parallel Tab); see articles on that verse; see names / places in that verse. Print the biblical text— optionally with the NET notes and / or your own notes. Listen to audio on certain chapters— Currently, only in the NT, Psalms, and Proverbs." Also includes links to blogs, forums, labs, store and more. Available on Bible.org

Modern King James Version – ©  1962– 1998 Jay P. Green, Sr.

King James 2000 Version – © Robert A. Couric. The entire OT and NT are also available for download (PDF)

New Authorized Version – AV7. © 1973– 2011 New Authorized Version Foundation

Illustrated King James Bible – KJV. Features literally hundreds of black and white woodcuts, drawings, and paintings
 

Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha – RSV. Old Testament © 1952; New Testament © 1946, 1971; Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical writings (includes 1 & 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, Song of Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, 1 & 2 Maccabees) © 1957, 1977 Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Includes several search options Douay– Rheims Bible – DOUAY– RHEIMS. Roman Catholic New American Bible – NAB. © 1970, 1986, 1991, 2002 United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Roman Catholic. OT contains Apocryphal writings and additions. Available from The Vatican archive. See also the NAB from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops website New American Bible, Revised Edition – NABRE. © 2011 United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Roman Catholic. This revision of the NAB was published in March 2012. Most of the revisions are excellent (easier to follow and read, more literal (closer in meaning to the original text), it flows well in English, poetry sounds poetic, et al.). The only significant down side to the text is that the OT contains Apocryphal writings and additions. Otherwise, this appears to be a very good English translation. Today's Reading and daily audio readings are also available The Brick Testament – © Brendan Powell Smith (an atheist). Features several Old and New Testament verses, creatively portrayed using lego

Darby Bible – Darby. © 1890 John Nelson Darby. Plymouth Brethren; Dispensational. Includes Darby's Bible Synopsis and On Ministry Today's New International Version – TNIV. © 2005 International Bible Society. "Remaining unswervingly faithful to the original ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic biblical texts, the TNIV speaks to today's world in today's words." This claim, however, is not entirely true: It has been noted that at least 3,686 gender- related translation inaccuracies (2,776 in the Old Testament, 910 in the New Testament) have been found which were accurately translated in the 1984 NIV. "The changes here involve the removal of five words: 'father', 'brother', 'man', 'son', and 'he / him / his.' … These 2,776" Old Testament and 910 New Testament "examples therefore seem to us to be 'translation inaccuracies' that were included in the TNIV for the sake of producing a more 'gender neutral' or 'inclusive language' version of the Bible. Such rewording may seem more acceptable in today's secular culture, but it is not a more accurate way of translating the Word of God. There is a wrongful removal of male- oriented meaning in over 2,700 places in the Old Testament" and 910 places in the New Testament (see "A Complete List of 3,686 Inaccurate Translations in the TNIV," available on Internet Archive) Cotton Patch Version – CPV. "A colloquial translation with a Southern accent." (Some may consider this translation offensive or heretical, a few may view it as twisted entertainment, while others may view it as a creative means of making the New Testament more accessible to unbelievers or believers) The Recovery Version – RcV (NT). The translation itself seems okay, but its commentary should be used with caution since it is extremely biased toward problematic and even heretical beliefs (i.e., the teachings of Witness Lee and his 'Local Church' movement) The Holy Bible, A Modern Translation – F. F. © 1908, 1966 Ferrar Fenton. Church of England (Anglican). Considered (by some) to be a scholar of Biblical languages, Fenton and his descendants do not claim him to be a scholar of Biblical languages, nor do they attribute any formal education in Biblical languages to his credit. Instead, Fenton claims his formal education was in commerce, while his Biblical 'education' was the result of reading unspecified books on a broad spectrum of subjects from an unspecified library. Fenton's understanding of the Hebrew and Greek languages and grammar is questionable (at best) since his translation contains numerous translation and grammatical errors throughout the Old and New Testaments. In addition, his attempts to 'correct' accurate translations with his erroneous translations (which he explains in footnotes) demonstrates that he often lacks a basic understanding of the Hebrew and Greek languages, their grammars, etc. Especially troubling is the statement in his introduction that "three accomplished scholars … advised and assisted in the revision of my versions" The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures – NWT. © 2013 Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. This is an update to their 1984 version, based primarily on the Masoretic Text (MT) and the Westcott & Hort (W&H) Greek NT. However, the translation itself is extremely biased and is often bent on 'evidencing' the beliefs and doctrines of the Jehovah's Witnesses, which are unsupported by the MT, Septuagint (LXX), Greek NT, and proper understanding of the Hebrew / Aramaic and Greek grammars. Also available for download (EPub, PDF, MP3, AAC). Available from Watchtower Inspired Version of the Bible – IV © Joseph Smith, Jr. (founder of The Church of Jesus Christ and Latter Day Saints; aka Mormons). This is "the Joseph Smith Translation of the King James Version of the Bible" which contains several modifications of the KJV, usually to reflect the beliefs and doctrines of Joseph Smith, which are unsupported by the MT, LXX, and Greek NT. The IV is also available from the Latter Day Saints Concordant Version – CV © A. E. Knoch and Concordant Publishing Concern. The New Testament is a completed translation based on the W&H Greek NT combined with the NA26|27 variants, while the Old Testament (nearing completion) is a translation of the MT. The translation itself is problematic because of an erroneous method of interpretation which makes little distinction between words in the original languages and words in the English language (which often differ significantly): "For each Original word, then, we assign a STANDARD English word. To facilitate a readable English translation, additional synonyms or other concordant variants are also used, as needed. In nearly all cases, any such standards, synonyms, and variants are used exclusively for a single word in the Original, thereby eliminating almost all 'crosswiring' between languages. Thus a substantial formal correspondency is maintained between the original and receptor language" (emphasis in original). As a result, this translation does not always reflect what the original language conveys but often seems bent on 'evidencing' numerous erroneous or even heretical presuppositions and doctrines which are unsupported by the original languages. See their 'Expositions' section and other writings by A. E. Knoch, found elsewhere (available on Internet Archive). Also see Universalism under the Other Side of the Fence section (right column)

See under Bibles (below, in the Biblical Research: Advanced section)
 

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Noteworthy Alternatives
for pastors, seminarians, scholars, etc.

Other Alternatives
for home use and Bible study

This section offers a variety of online Daily Devotions. These generally include one or more suggested Scripture readings for that day and a brief message which takes 60 seconds – 15 minutes to go through. Most people who use daily devotions routinely go through them as their day begins, but they can be used at any time of the day.

 


Portals of Prayer – Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). Printed editions are available for purchase from Concordia Publishing House (CPH). The 90 second audio version is no longer available

Daily Devotion – Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). Available from Lutheran Hour Ministries. An audio version (MP3) is available from weblink and a text archive is also available

Meyer Minute – Rev. Dr. Dale Meyer. Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). The 90 second audio version is no longer available

By The Way – Rev. Dr. Paul Devantier. Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). Only available in MP3 audio (60 seconds) from KFUO AM radio

Front Porch Parenting – © Dr. Mary Manz Simon. Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). The 60 second audio program is no longer available. See link for more options

Moments of Assurance – Rev. Mark Hawkinson. Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). Weekly. This audio program is no longer available

 


Our Daily Bread – Reformed (Particular Baptist). Available from RBC Ministries

My Upmost for His Highest – © Oswald Chambers. Reformed (Particular Baptist). Available from RBC Ministries

Strength for the Journey – Reformed (Particular Baptist). Also available in MP3 audio. Available from RBC Ministries

 


Daily Devotion – © Harvest Ministries (Greg Laurie). Arminian (mixed). Available from Crosswalk.com

In Touch Daily Devotional – © Charles Stanley. Arminian (General Baptist). Available from Crosswalk.com

 


Today's Creation Moments – © Creation Moments. Includes both transcript and an audio (MP3); an archive is also available. "Creation Moments is a nonprofit, … interdenominational Christian outreach. We serve individuals, students, churches, home schoolers and professionals by offering products that uphold the truth of God in creation. CMI exists to glorify God by presenting scientific evidence for the literal truth of the Bible." Available from Creation Moments

 


Devotionals – Available from Crosswalk.com

Devotionals – Available from Heartlight

Devotionals – Available from Back to the Bible
     

This section offers a variety of online reading plans for reading the Bible in a year.
  

BibleYear.com – © BibleYear.com. Offers five different reading plans (beginning to end, chronological, historical, New then Old, Old and New) for over 50 translations (19 in English). Select your reading plan from the translation of your choice, then when you plan to begin your plan (either the 1st or 15th of any month), and that's it. A page will then open with a list of daily readings for the year, according to your selected reading plan. An excellent resource!
     

English Language Resources

Free Collections

Paid Access, Courses and Resources

Dictionary & Thesaurus – © Merriam- Webster OnLine. Contains all the information from the most recent print edition and is continually updated

Encyclopædia Britannica – © . Contains all the information from the most recent print edition and is continually updated. This site offers a free 7- day trial period, but otherwise access is by paid subscription (annual or monthly)

Encyclopedia.com – "features premier titles like The Columbia Encyclopedia, Oxford's World Encyclopedia, and the Encyclopedia of World Biography. Plus, our online dictionary collection is an invaluable research tool with exhaustive information ranging from the general purpose Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English, to social science terms in A Dictionary of Psychology, to health- related nutrition definitions in A Dictionary of Food Nutrition. Encyclopedia.com offers millions of free articles, pictures, facts, and biographies along with information about topics like the arts, science, sports, medicine, accounting, and management. Encyclopedia.com is an ideal online reference source for researchers, students, educators, and professionals alike" (bold in original)

Roget's International Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases – © 1922 Peter Mark Roget. "Mawson's modernization of Roget's classic structure with over 85,000 hyperlinked cross- references and 2,900 quotations." Available on Bartleby.com

The Cambridge History of English and American Literature – © 1907– 1921.  An encyclopedia in 18 volumes. "Considered the most important work of literary history and criticism ever published, the Cambridge History contains over 303 chapters and 11,000 pages, with essay topics ranging from poetry, fiction, drama and essays to history, theology and political writing. The set encompasses a wide selection of writing on orators, humorists, poets, newspaper columnists, religious leaders, economists, Native Americans, song writers, and even non- English writing, such as Yiddish and Creole." Available on Bartleby.com

Columbia Encyclopedia – no longer available on Bartleby.com
 
 
 
 
Google Translate – © Google Inc. Translate websites or text (63 languages)

Bing Translator – © Microsoft Corp. The Yahoo! Babel Fish link now redirects us to Microsoft's Bing Translator. Translates websites or text (39 languages)

Text Translator – translation tool (12 languages); also available are an email translator and website translator (even translate your own website). Available on Applied Language Solutions
   

This section remains under construction.



 

Collections

Philosophy: The Art of Reasoning

As you may have noticed, this section remains under construction.



  

Stephen's Guide to Logical Fallacies – © 1995– 2001 Stephen Downes. "Logical fallacies are errors of reasoning, errors which may be recognized and corrected by prudent thinkers. This site indexes and describes all known logical fallacies." A nicer looking mirror site is available on the Lightbucket blog
   

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – © 2004. "A dynamic reference work and is a publishing project of the Metaphysics Research Lab at the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) at Stanford University"
   

Biblical Resources: Intermediate

This section features several Christian dictionaries, cyclopedias, and encyclopedias. While many of these resources are so old that they have become public domain, some are more recent and have been graciously provided by their editors and publishers.

  


King James Dictionary – a useful list of "over 800 words whose definitions have changed since 1611" and their modern meanings. Available from Crosswalk.com

Study Dictionary – contains over 33,400 definitions from multiple resources, including Hitchcock's Bible Names, Nave's Topical Bible, New Bible Dictionary, Smith's Bible Dictionary, International Standard Bible Dictionary, and Strong's Greek & Hebrew Lexicon. See also the NET Bible Study Environment (which is an outstanding resource). Available from Bible.org

Easton's Bible Dictionary – © 1897 Matthew George Easton. Available from Crosswalk.com

Hitchcock's Bible Names – © 1869 Roswell D. Hitchcock. Available from Crosswalk.com

Smith's Bible Dictionary – © 1860 William Smith. Available from Crosswalk.com

A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principle Sects and Heresies – © 1999 Henry Wace and William C. Piercy. An outstanding, informative, and detailed resource on both people (orthodox and heretical) and literature (including from certain councils) of the first six hundred years. Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library

A Dictionary of African Christian Biography – © 2002 Dictionary of African Christian Biography. "Recording the untold stories of African Christians who have transformed Africa and the Christian world"

Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology – © 1996, edited by Walter A. Elwell. Arminian (General Baptist). Available from Crosswalk.com

Dictionary of Theology – Arminian (General Baptist). Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)

Postmodern Bible Dictionary – © 1996– 2005 Tim Bulkeley

 


Christian Cyclopedia – © 2000. Confessional Lutheran. Emended, corrected, and expanded internet version of the 1954 / 1975 (revised) Lutheran Cyclopedia, originally published by Concordia Publishing House (CPH). Available from Lutheran Church– Missouri Synod (LC–MS)

 


Web Bible Encyclopedia – © Matthew G. Easton, etc. Available from ChristianAnswers.Net

CCEL Search Engines – primarily Calvinist. This link was originally called World Wide Encyclopedia of Christianity, but this was meant to be a description rather than a title. This search engine is designed to help users find words and phrases, titles and authors, definitions, Scripture references and commentaries, etc. in various resources available on the Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL)

International Standard Bible Encyclopædia – © 1913 Eerdmans. James Orr, General Editor. Reformed (Presbyterian). Available from Blue Letter Bible
 

The New Schaff– Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, vols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 (index), dictionary – © 1953, edited by Philip Schaff. Reformed. Available in HTML, in UTF-8 (unicode), PDF, and in other formats from Christian Classics Ethereal Library Catholic Encyclopedia – © 1917. Roman Catholic. Available from New Advent. See also the 1914 edition from CatholiCity

Jack Van Impe's Dictionary of Prophecy Terms – © 1998 Jack Van Impe. Dispensationalism. A "unique perspective on prophecy and the end times." No longer available from Crosswalk.com

   

See under Historical Context (right column, in the History: Past & Present section)

 


World Wide Study Bible – numerous authors have contributed to the commentaries found in this resource. Reformed. Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL)

The Fourfold Gospel – © John William McGarvey and Philip Yancey Pendleton. Churches of Christ (Restoration Movement). Available from Crosswalk.com

David Guzik's Commentaries on the Bible – © David Guzik. Available from StudyLight.org

James Burton Coffman's Commentaries: Whole Bible – © James Burton Coffman. Copyright negotiations were successful and this resource is now available again, from StudyLight.org

Robertson's Word Pictures of the New Testament – © 1930– 1933 Sunday School Board of the Southern Baptist Convention (by A. T. Robertson). Arminian (General Baptist). Available from Crosswalk.com

Illustrated New Testament – © John Steven Cabot Abbott and Jacob Abbott. Congregationalist. Available from StudyLight.org

Adam Clarke Commentary – © Adam Clarke. Arminian (Methodist). Available from StudyLight.org

The People's New Testament – © 1891 Barton Warren Johnson. Churches of Christ (Restoration Movement). Available from BibleStudyGuide.org

Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible – © 1871 Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset and David Brown. Church of England (Anglican). Available from Crosswalk.com

Barne's Notes on the New Testament – by Albert Barnes. Reformed (Presbyterian). Available from StudyLight.org

John Gill's Exposition of the Bible – by John Gill. Reformed (Particular Baptist). Available from Crosswalk.com

Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary – by Matthew Henry (concise). Reformed (Presbyterian). Available from BibleStudyGuide.org

Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible – 1706– 1721 by Matthew Henry (complete). Reformed (Presbyterian). Available from BibleStudyGuide.org

John Lightfoot's Commentary on the Gospels – by John Lightfoot. Reformed. Available from StudyLight.org

Geneva Study Bible – 1599. Reformed (Calvinist). Available from Crosswalk.com

John Calvin's Commentaries – John Calvin (complete). Reformed (Calvinist). Available from BibleStudyGuide.org
 

John Wesley's Explanatory Notes on the Whole Bible – 1754– 1765 by John Wesley. Arminian (Wesleyan / Methodist). Available from Crosswalk.com Bible Commentaries – a large collection of Old and New Testament commentaries (listed by author), some are not listed above. These contributors include: Anonymous or miscellaneous; Norman Anderson; George André; George Bell; J. G. Bellett; Max Billeter; J. S. Blackburn; A. E. Bouter; Hugo Bouter; Jeff Brett; Ernie Brown; R. K. Campbell; H. F. G. Cole; E. N. Cross; J. N. Darby; George Davison; Edward Dennett; W. W. Fereday; A. C. Gaebelein; A. E. Goodwin; F. W. Grant; Leslie M. Grant; Michael Hardt; H. L. Heijkoop; F. B. Hole; H. A. Ironside; William Kelly; C. Knapp; C. H. Mackintosh; Andrew Miller; Morrish Concise Bible Dictionary; Jean Muller; D. W. Paterson; Greg Quail; Arend Remmers; Henri Rossier; W. Scott; Hamilton Smith; Charles Stanley; L. A. Stassel; C. E. Stuart; G. F. Vallance; E. P. Vedder; Martin Vedder; H. J. Vine; Michael Vogelsang; Frank Wallace; and W. T. P. Wolston. Available from the Biblecentre

John Darby's Synopsis of the New Testament – by John Darby. Plymouth Brethren; Dispensationalism. Available from Crosswalk.com Treasury of Scripture Knowledge – © R. A. Torrey. Congregationalist; Dispensationalism. Available from StudyLight.org Scofield Reference Notes – © 1917 C. I. Scofield. Congregationalist; Dispensationalism. Available from Crosswalk.com    Millennium Dawnism Studies in the Scriptures – © 1916 Charles Taze Russell. Millennium Dawnism. Available from the North Seattle Bible Students Judaism Babylonian Talmud – Judaism. Includes a readable scanned image of each page (in Hebrew) and an audio commentary, which is available in English (includes Hebrew which is then translated and explained), Ou and Yiddish. Each audio commentary is available in several audio formats (MP3 / WMA / RA). Also includes some other useful links. Available from E-DAF.com

   

see under Old Testament and Intertestimental (right column, in Archæology section)
 



see under New Testament and Early Church (right column, in Archæology section)
 

History: Past & Present

This section also remains under construction. Some ideas for this section include links that answer the question of "What is History?" and the different ways history can be determined and distinguished from things like myth (addressed below) or post- modernism, and how new ideas (like feminism, changing views on human sexuality, etc.) can influence or change the way we look at history. If you know any links or have any suggestions, please send me an email.



  

Nations

Egyptian

Hittite

Canaanite

Mesopotamian

Philistine

Assyrian

Babylonian

Persian

Greek

Roman

Individuals

Homer
ca. 9th century B.C.E.

Herodotus
historian, ca. 484– ca. 420 B.C.E.

Thucydides
historian, d. ca. 401 B.C.E.

Plato
philosopher, 428– 348 B.C.E.

Demosthenes
orator & statesman, 384– 322 B.C.E.

Caesar
emperor, 100– 44 B.C.E.

Livy
(Titus Livius)
historian, 59 B.C.E.– 17 C.E.

Philo of Alexandria
(Philo Judaeus)
Jewish philosopher, ca. 15 B.C.E.– 50 C.E.

Thalius
Samaritan historian, wrote ca. 52 C.E.

Josephus
Jewish historian, 37– 100 C.E.

Cornelius Tactitus
Roman historian, 56– 120 C.E.

Pliny the Younger
(Gaius Caecilius Pliny Secundus)
governor of Bithynia in Asia Minor, 61– 113 C.E.

Anyone who has read the Old and New Testaments of the Bible will have read that every nation and people of the earth— regardless of their current nationality, race, colour or religious beliefs— are descendants of Adam and Eve (the first humans created). We also read about the many tribes, kingdoms and nations that developed along side God's chosen people. This section is designed to provide readers with more information on those "other" tribes, kingdoms and nations that developed along side of God's chosen people, and perhaps even fought with or against them.

Ancient Hebrew Research Center – © Ancient Hebrew Research Center. "Teaching the Ancient Biblical Hebrew Language of the Bible Through the Study of the Ancient Hebrew Alphabet, Culture and Thought" Bible History Online – "the focus … is history and the Bible." An excellent resource that also features "The Bible Knowledge Accelerator" Documents on the Persecution of the Early Church – features numerous extra- biblical accounts of Christian persecution from secular writers such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, Minucuis Felix, and others History of the Christian Church, vols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 – © Philip Schaff. Reformed. Available in HTML, UTF-8 (unicode), PDF, and in other formats from Christian Classics Ethereal Library

The Ancient Egypt Site – "a constantly evolving interactive book about the history, language and culture of Ancient Egypt. It can easily be accessed by topic or by keyword"

Ancient Greece – features art and architecture, geography, time periods (history), mythology, olympics, people, wars, culture & society, and other resources having to do with Ancient Greece

Pompeii: Insula – an excellent resource for anyone curious about housing in New Testament times. "This website is intended to offer a sampling of selected material from the British School at Rome's Pompeii Project, studying an excavated block of houses (Insula 9) in Region I"

The Schøyen Collection – © Martin Schøyen. A collection of "740 manuscripts spanning 5000 years" featuring Bibles, history, literature, palaeography, and other useful resources
 



Early Jewish Writings – includes the Old Testament, the Dead Sea Scrolls, deuterocanonical and pseudepigraphal writings, the Tulmud, and the writings of Philo of Alexandria and Flavius Josephus

Early Christian Writings – includes the New Testament, apocryphal and Gnostic writings, the Church Fathers, as well as historically significant secular writings

Anno Domini: Jesus Through the Centuries – © Virtual Museum Canada. "The virtual edition of Anno Domini: Jesus Through the Centuries is the result of a lengthy and fruitful partnership between The Provincial Museum of Alberta, Alberta Community Development, and the Canadian Heritage Information Network (CHIN). It is part of a larger project that includes a major physical exhibition that opened at The Provincial Museum of Alberta in Edmonton in October 2000" (italics in original). Please note: As of June 2005, "The Provincial Museum of Alberta" has been renamed "The Royal Alberta Museum" by authority of Queen Elizabeth II. Available from Virtual Museum Canada




Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament : Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible – © John H. Walton (Baker Academic, 2006)

Old Testament Parallels : Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East – © Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin (Paulist Press, 2006)
   

So where do myths, fables and fairy tales fit in? Are they also historical? It should be noted that all myths, fables and fairytales are written within history and often reflect (to some degree) events, thoughts, insights, beliefs, superstitions or hypothetical situations from a certain time period.
   Myths are generally understood to be based on a real historical person, place, event or thing which over time has been modified considerably, often with fanciful additions and select oversights which transform the subject and the story involving the subject into something worth telling (inspirational, or to learn from their mistakes).
   Fables are fanciful stories or parables that are obviously not intended to be historical, but are intended to provide the hearer with a moral or something to consider when dealing with certain people or situations.
   Fairy tales are generally surreal fiction stories that are often designed to entertain, but sometimes have a moral to them.





The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature – © 2003– 2006 The ETCSL project, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford. "Sumerian is the first language for which we have written evidence and its literature the earliest known. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL), a project of the University of Oxford, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE. The corpus contains Sumerian texts in transliteration, English prose translations and bibliographical information for each composition. The transliterations and the translations can be searched, browsed and read online using the tools of the website. Funding for the ETCSL project came to an end in the summer of 2006 and no work is currently being done to this site or its contents."

Song of the Hoe –

Hymn to E-engura –

Enki and Ninmah –

KAR –




  Atrahasis –

  Gilgamesh –

  Enuma Elish –




Code of Shulgi –









Code of Hammurab –




  Aqhat –

  Kirta –



















  Shabaka Stela –

  Anubis and Beta –

  Pyramid Texts –

  Coffin Texts –

  Instruction of Merikare –

  Book of the Dead –

Israelite Pseudepigraphal and Apocryphal (ca. 630 B.C.E.– 134 C.E.) See under Pseudepigraphal & Non- Canonical Writings (below, in the Other Side of the Fence section)

  


Greek Mythology.com – features "information on all subjects of Greek Mythology, including details on Greek Gods and Greek Goddesses, Greek Myths and Greek Heroes like Achilles and Hercules. It also has full text of  Greek Mythology and Literature books. You can freely use all information in this site for term papers, research papers, college essays and homework papers"

Who's Who in Greek Mythology  – an informative website that allows people to read Greek myths, hear Greek myths and more. Available on the Ancient Greece (for Kids) website

Early Christian Period Pseudepigraphal and Apocryphal (ca. 27 C.E.– 600 C.E.) See under Pseudepigraphal & Non- Canonical Writings (below, in the Other Side of the Fence section)

  


Aesop's Fables – "includes a total of 655+ Fables, indexed in table format, with morals listed. There are many more on the way. Most were translated into English by Rev. George Fyler Townsend (1814– 1900) and Ambrose Bierce (1842– 1914) the rest are from Jean De La Fontaine in French and translated to English by several good internet souls"




Grimm Fairy Tales – "folk and fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm. Read and hear interactive, narrated, animated stories. Children's literature and folklore classics featuring animals, princesses, magic, and fabulous creatures! Grimm Brothers cartoon characters present a biography of Jacob Ludwig Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm. Online books link to e-learning, colouring downloads, arts, flash games, and other kidstuff"

The Hans Christian Andersen Center – © Institute of Literature, Media and Cultural Studies at the University of South Denmark. "As a unit at the University of South Denmark, our center specializes in research and information on matters related to Hans Christian Andersen. The centre was established in 1988. Hans Christian Andersen (1805– 1875), the world- famous Danish author, whose work has been translated into almost 150 languages, was born in Odense— then Denmark's second largest town, today the third largest. The first 14 years of his life were spent in this town, which provided him with subject matter for several of his fairy- tales, as well as for parts of novels, memoirs and plays. For this reason, the Hans Christian Andersen Center is ideally located at the University of Southern Denmark. In Odense you will also find the museums Hans Christian Andersen's House and Hans Christian Andersen's Childhood Home. The extensive interest for Hans Christian Andersen, not only within Denmark but also internationally, encompasses both the man and the writer: His fairy- tales (210 in total), autobiographies (3), travel journals (5), novels (6) etc., his personal connections with the arts, music and theatre of the time, and not least Andersen as a point of departure today regarding children's reading and drawing, illustrators, puppet films, cartoons, movies, stage productions, ballets, operas etc. Also significant is the use of Hans Christian Andersen in the tourist industry"




Fables, Fairy Tales, Stories and Nursery Rhymes – includes selections from Aesop's Fables, Hans Christian Andersen, Grimm's Fairy Tales, Lewis Carroll, Carlo Collodi, Mother Goose and Nursery Rhymes

SurLaLune Fairy Tales – "features 49 annotated fairy tales, including their histories, similar tales across cultures, modern interpretations and over 1,500 illustrations"
    

Biblical Resources: Advanced

Hebrew Root Word Studies – © Ancient Hebrew Research Center. Available from Ancient Hebrew Research Center

History of the Hebrew Language – © David Steinberg. A detailed and informative resource addressing the history of the Hebrew language
  



A Concise Overview of the History of the Greek Language – © 2002, 2009 greek- language.com. An excellent resource for anyone interested in a brief yet informative history of the Greek language from earliest accounts to modern Greek. Includes links to blogs, bookstore, dictionaries, forums, learn Greek, manuscripts and more

The Greek Language – © 2000 Translexis Ltd. An excellent introduction to the history of the Greek language, from its earliest accounts to the development of modern Greek. Includes pictures. Available from Translexis Limited

History of the Greek Language – © 1999– 2004 Marc Huys. Features a collection of links to resources addressing the history of the Greek language and alphabet. Available from Greek Grammar on the Web

    


Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) – "Founded in 1972 the TLG represents the first effort in the Humanities to produce a large digital corpus of literary texts. Since its inception the project has collected and digitized most texts written in Greek from Homer (8 c. B.C.) to the fall of Byzantium in AD 1453 and beyond. Its goal is to create a comprehensive digital library of Greek literature from antiquity to the present era. TLG research activities combine the traditional methodologies of philological and literary study with the most advanced features of information technology. … Today the Online TLG contains more than 100 million words from 9,958 works associated with 2,314 authors and is constantly updated and improved with new features and texts. The full corpus is available to more than 2,000 subscribing institutions and thousands of individuals in 58 countries worldwide" (see original text). Three areas are available, one for subscribers and two for non- subscribers (TLG Canon and Abridged Online TLG). A collection of Greek fonts (needed to view the texts) are also available
  



Fonts for Scholars, Academics, and Students – numerous ancient language fonts "designed for the classroom or for publications where original scribal or epigraphic script would be more desireable than transcriptions"

GoldenWeb.it Fonts – literally thousands of fonts, most of them using the standard North American alphabet

SIL Fonts for Downloading – "SIL International has produced several font sets over the years that allow for the transcription of linguistic data using the International Phonetic Alphabet. This page should help the user to decide whether to use Unicode fonts or whether to use the SIL IPA or SIL IPA93 fonts. It provides links to many relevant resources with regard to the International Phonetic Alphabet"

Wazu Japan's Gallery of Unicode Fonts – and excellent collection of links to dozens of language and font types, including a collection of links to Hebrew, Greek, Polytonic Greek, Coptic, Syriac, and other fonts




Doulos SIL – designed "to provide a single Unicode- based font family that would contain a comprehensive inventory of glyphs needed for almost any Roman- or Cyrillic- based writing system, whether used for phonetic or orthographic needs. In addition, there is provision for other characters and symbols useful to linguists. This font makes use of state- of- the- art font technologies to support complex typographic issues, such as the need to position arbitrary combinations of base glyphs and diacritics optimally"

Charis SIL – designed "to provide a single Unicode- based font family that would contain a comprehensive inventory of glyphs needed for almost any Roman- or Cyrillic- based writing system, whether used for phonetic or orthographic needs. In addition, there is provision for other characters and symbols useful to linguists. This font makes use of state- of- the- art font technologies to support complex typographic issues, such as the need to position arbitrary combinations of base glyphs and diacritics optimally"

Ezra SIL (Hebrew Unicode) – "a typeface fashioned after the square letter forms of the typography of the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS), a beautiful Old Testament volume familiar to Biblical Hebrew scholars. The Ezra SIL font is an OpenType 'smart' font. It is designed to work with Office 2003 and above"

SBL Biblical Fonts – links to SBL Hebrew, SBL Greek, and Legacy SP fonts (including SP Ionic, etc.)

Teknia Fonts – includes the Teknia Hebrew and Teknia Greek fonts. Available from Teknia Software

Galatia SIL (Greek Unicode) – contains "most of the symbols defined in Unicode 3.1 for Latin-1, Greek (excluding Coptic), Macintosh Character Set (US Roman), and 850WE / Latin-1 and are supplied in Regular and Bold weights"

Gentium SIL (Greek Unicode) – "a typeface family designed to enable the diverse ethnic groups around the world who use the Latin and Greek scripts to produce readable, high- quality publications. It supports a wide range of Latin- based alphabets and includes glyphs that correspond to all the Latin ranges of Unicode. The design is intended to be highly readable, reasonably compact, and visually attractive. The additional ‘extended' Latin letters are designed to naturally harmonize with the traditional 26 ones. Diacritics are treated with careful thought and attention to their use. Gentium also supports both polytonic and monotonic Greek, including a number of alternate forms. Expansion of the character set to include more extended Latin glyphs (Unicode 5.1), archaic Greek symbols, and full Cyrillic script support is underway." A full version (described above, unicode) and basic version (limited to Latin characters) are available

New Athena Unicode – "New Athena Unicode is a freeware multilingual font distributed by the American Philological Association. It follows the latest version of the Unicode standard and includes characters for English and Western European languages, polytonic Greek, Coptic, Old Italic, and Demotic Egyptian transliteration, as well as metrical symbols and other characters used by classical scholars"

Apparatus SIL Fonts – "designed to provide most of the symbols needed to reproduce the textual apparatus found in major editions of Greek & Hebrew biblical texts"
 

Oxford Hebrew Bible (OHB) – © Oxford University Press. "The Oxford Hebrew Bible will be a new critical edition of the Hebrew Bible featuring a critical text, apparatus, and text- critical introduction and commentary. Each book of the Hebrew Bible will be addressed in a separate volume, published by Oxford University Press, with a single volume each for the Minor Prophets, the Megillot, and Ezra- Nehemiah. This project represents a departure from the other major textual editions (the Biblia Hebraica Quinta and the Hebrew University Bible), which are diplomatic editions." According to Ronald Hendel ("The Oxford Hebrew Bible : Prologue to a New Critical Edition"), the OHB will be an "eclectic editio critica maior" since its apparatus aims to be comprehensive by addressing all substantive textual variants

Hebrew University Bible (HUB) – © Hebrew University of Jerusalem; edited by Shemaryahu Talmon. This edition is based on the superior Aleppo Codex and its masora (unfortunately, parts of the codex were lost in a fire during a riot in 1947). This edition began in 1955 under the late Moshe Goshen- Gottstein (who was succeeded by Chaim Rabin, and then by Talmon), and will be "a complete scientific edition of the Bible, recording textual variants from the ancient Greek and Latin versions, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic targums, the Qumran Scrolls, Rabbinic literature and Medieval biblical manuscripts, including the Cairo Genizah. … This Bible will be the product of many years of study by leading Hebrew University scholars, and when completed will be the most comprehensive extant edition of the Bible. HUBP publishes Textus, a scientific journal dedicated exclusively to the topic of textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible." According to Ronald Hendel ("The Oxford Hebrew Bible : Prologue to a New Critical Edition"), Adrian Schenker considers the HUB to be an editio critica maior since its apparatus attempts to address as many textual variants as possible

Biblia Hebraica Leningrad (BHL) – © 2000 Brill Academic Publishers, © 2001 Hendrickson Publishing; edited by Aron Dotan. "This is not a photographic reproduction, but a reprinting of the text with modern Hebrew fonts." This edition of the Leningrad Codex (ca. 1008– 1009) "presents a thoroughly revised, reset, and redesigned edition of the Hebrew Bible meticulously prepared by renowned masoretic scholar Aron Dotan. The BHL includes features that suit it for research, classroom, and liturgical use. Scholars will find this a welcome edition of the Leningrad Codex, the oldest complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, whose text and layout it precisely follows. A foreword and five appendices provide the researcher with important details and distinctions about the codex. In addition to being a scientific edition, it was originally commissioned in Israel to follow the necessary adaptations that qualify it for Jewish liturgical use, such as divisions into weekly portions and their subdivisions for synagogue reading. Students, too, will find here an ideal text for classroom use, with an uncluttered format and printing that is matchless for its readability." Hardcovers of the BHL, published by Brill Academic Publishers and Hendrickson Publishing, are available online

Biblia Hebraica Quinta (BHQ) – © 2001– ca. 2020 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. This fifth edition of Biblia Hebraica is a work in progress (i.e. fascicles of different books or collections are released as they are completed). When all fascicles of the BHQ are completed (ca. 2020), a compilation will be published to supersede the fourth edition of Biblia Hebraica (BHS). This edition is based on the Leningrad Codex, but the text has been corrected using recent colour photographs of this codex. According to Ronald Hendel ("The Oxford Hebrew Bible : Prologue to a New Critical Edition"), Adrian Schenker considers the BHQ to be an editio critica minor since its apparatus is selective rather than comprehensive. Unlike previous editions, BHQ includes the Masorah magna, a commentary that explains the Masorah along with significant textual variants, and henceforth its apparatus will rarely cite variants from Hebrew manuscripts collated by Kennicott and Ginsburg— thus it will follow the work of Moshe Goshen- Gottstein)

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS) – © 1977, 1997 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (i.e. Württembergische Bibelanstalt before 1981). This fourth edition of Biblia Hebraica superseded the third edition of Biblia Hebraica (Kittel and Kahle). The main text is allegedly an exact copy of the Leningrad Codex, but the margin notes and critical apparatus have been edited to make them easier to follow. Although criticised by some for having errors, the most recent release of the BHS (1997) underwent numerous corrections and revisions. A hardcover and paperback edition are available online

Biblia Hebraica (Kittel) – © 1905– 1906 (HB1), 1913 (HB2), 1937 (HB3 / HBK) Württembergische Bibelanstalt; edited by Rudolf Kittel. Three editions were published. The first two editions (distributed through Sumptibus Ernesti Bredtii Lipsiae and J. C. Hinrichs) used the Mikraot Gedolot as its main text. However, although based on the outstanding Aleppo Codex, the Mikraot Gedolot published by Daniel Bomberg (1524) is known to have numerous errors and corruptions. Thus, at the recommendation of Paul Kahle, the third edition used the Leningrad Codex as its main text while Kittel's critical apparatus and notes remained unchanged. The first edition (1905– 1906) was published in two volumes (vols 1 & 2) and is available in PDF on Internet Archive; links to other two additions have yet to be found online

Biblia Hebraica (Lipsiae) – © 1868 Sumptibus Ernesti Bredtii Lipsiae; edited by Caroli Tauchnitii. This two volume edition (vol 1 & 2) offers both an editio critica minor Hebrew text (1834) and the text of the Latin Clemintine Vulgate (1592). Available in PDF on Internet Archive

Hebrew- English Bible – Masoretic Text (MT), JPS. © 1917 Jerusalem Publication Society. Features the MT and an English translation

Navigating the Bible II (The Torah) – MT. Online bar / bat mitzvah tutor: Study (with optional audio) translation, Torah, Haftarot, Brachot, Divrei Torah. Several other tools are also available through this awesome resource

 


The Editio Critica Maior (ECM) – © 1997– ca. 2030 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. "The Institute for New Testament Textual Research in Münster … is currently working on an entirely new edition of the Greek- language New Testament, the so- called Editio Critica Maior, which will document the history of the Greek text through the first millennium on the basis of Greek manuscripts, old translations, and New Testament citations in ancient Christian literature that are of significance to the history of transmission. This edition therefore also provides information for answering further questions: How does a text change over the course of history, and why? How was a text received in the early Christian era? The original biblical text was also reconstructed once more in this connection with a newly developed method; in this process it became evident that the existing text required extensive modification. The first installment of this edition appeared in 1997. … The entire Editio Critica Maior is to be completed by 2030. This project is being supported by the Union of the German Academies of Sciences and Humanities"

Digital Nestle- Aland Prototype – © INTF. This website offers glimpse of an endeavour to provide the forthcoming NA²⁸ with critical apparatus online (it is currently using the NA²⁷ with an incomplete critical apparatus). Includes an online user guide for using the prototype; for more information, read what is in this link and this link. Available from the University of Münster Institute for New Testament Textual Research

The Greek Bible in Byzantine Judaism (GBBJ) – © 2012 Greek Bible in Byzantine Judaism. "The aim of the Greek Bible in Byzantine Judaism project is to gather evidence for the use of Greek Bible translations by Jews in the Middle Ages, and to make these texts available to scholars as a corpus, together with the information necessary for an appreciation of their historical background, meaning and exegetical implications" (see about GBBJ). This text is a critical edition of the LXX

Septuagint – LXX. An HTML transliteration of the Greek text

The New Testament and the Septuagint – includes the LXX and the Greek NT Byzantine / Majority Text in PDF. Available from The University of British Columbia. A backup of the site (6 July 2011) is available on Internet Archive

Westcot & Hort Greek New Testament – Greek NT (W&H). © 1881 Westcot & Hort. Available on The Perseus Digital Library

Westcot & Hort Greek New Testament – Greek NT (W&H). © 1881 Westcot & Hort. Available on the Christian Classics Ethereal Library (with accents)

The Greek New Testament – Greek NT. © Tony Fisher. Nestle- Aland 26th Edition (NA²⁶). Unfortunately, since Tony Fisher passed away in 2000, those maintaining this website plan to close it down indefinitely sometime in the near future. However, a mirror site is now available from the website of Jonathan Kimmit

Online Greek New Testament – Greek NT. Features word parsing, Strong's Dictionary, etc.
  



Reader's Version of Greek and Hebrew Bible – © John Dyer. Designed to "present you with only what you really need to actually read the original text free from the distractions of additional features," by allowing "you to create a customized reader's version of the Hebrew or Greek Biblical text." For more information, read the article posted on his blog
     

Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 C.E.) – Latin Vulgate. Roman Catholic. Contains Apocryphal writings and additions Sixtine Vulgate (1590 C.E.) – Latin Vulgate. Roman Catholic. For information about this translation, see this link. Contains Apocryphal writings and additions Clementine Vulgate (1592 C.E.) – Latin Vulgate. Roman Catholic. Contains Apocryphal writings and additions. The OT of this edition was used for the Douay (English) translation. Also available in PDF Nova Vulgata: Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio – New Latin Vulgate. Roman Catholic. Contains Apocryphal writings and additions. Available from The Vatican archive

Peshitta – © Paul D. Younan. Sidebar includes links to the introduction, articles, tools (lexicon, Peshitta NT & Psalms (PDF), etc.), Trilinear Targums (Hebrew- English), Interlinear NT (Aramaic- English), forum, music, etc.

Syriac Bible – © 1823 (no longer in copyright). A scanned copy of the Syriac Bible. Available on Internet Archive. More information about the Syriac Bible is available here, on Syriac Orthodox Resources





  

A "Lexicon" is generally understood to be an alphabetical dictionary of Hebrew / Aramaic or Classical / Koine Greek words, each with a set of definitions (broad) or an explanation of its possible meanings in relation to its appearance or use (specific). Some lexicons include a list of synonyms and antonymns. Although these are potentially useful tools, their usefulness is limited without a basic understanding of Hebrew / Aramaic and Classical / Koine Greek grammars. To help address this problem, "Grammar & Learning Guides" are also included in this section.

In Biblical Hebrew, there are three noticable stages of alphabet and grammar formation between the earliest and latest writings; for example, the book of Daniel alternates between latter Hebrew and Aramaic languages. Later (ca. 800 C.E.), vowels were added to Biblical Hebrew in an attempt to preserve proper pronounciation; modern Hebrew generally lacks vowels.
   Similarly, there are some differences between Classical (mainly Attic / Ionic) Greek and Koine Greek. Primary differences between Classical and Koine Greek include vocabulary, pronounciation, grammar and spelling of certain words. By the time Attic (i.e., Byzantine) Greek became normative (ca. 330 C.E.), some of these variations were cultural— thus the transition of a text from place to place could often be determined by the way they spelled or arranged certain words, etc. These variations began to appear when the original New Testament writings were copied, translated and spread across the Roman Empire (and beyond), and varied according to language and spellings of the copyist. As copies were further copied, translated and spread, variations increased, leaving a 'footprint' which modern scholars use to trace back a manuscript's influences and history.
   During the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian (284– 305 C.E.), his co- regent and son- in- law Galerius persuaded Diocletian to issue three edicts to persecute and purge Christianity from the Roman Empire (303 C.E.); a fourth edict was issued by co- regent Maximian (304 C.E.). All Christian Scriptures and churches were to be burned, all Christians were to be deprived of public offices and civil rights, and any Christian who refused to sacrifice to Roman deities were publically tortured, mutilated, and either executed or forced to work in the prison mines (which often ended in death). In 308 C.E., a fifth edict was issued that forced Christians to either starve to death or consume food and drink that were sacrificed to Roman deities or sprinkled with wine sacrificed to Roman deities. Most of the earliest New Testament writings are believed to have been destroyed during this time. In 310 C.E., Maximian committed suicide. A year later, after eight years of persecution, Galerius relented and issued an edict of toleration toward Christians in his lands (311 C.E.). Although Christians continued to be persecuted under Maximin and Maxentius in the east, things changed when Constantine (the Roman Emperor, recognised only in the west) defeated Maxentius in battle (312 C.E.) and issued his own edict of toleration (313 C.E.). Maximin consented to the edict, but poisoned himself soon afterward when Constantine's brother- in- law and co- regent, Lucinius, defeated Maximin in battle. In 323 C.E., Lucinius briefly renewed persecution against Christianity, but was defeated by Constantine who then restored peace and became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
   Cultural influences (driven mainly by purists of Attic Greek, who strongly opposed Koine Greek) brought in Atticism (i.e., Byzantine Greek, ca. 330 C.E.). The majority of Greek New Testament writings that have been found in modern times are from this time period and beyond (a.k.a., the "Majority Text"), and reflect the language, spelling, grammar, etc. of Attic Greek. These were then copied, translated and spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, primarily in the East. (In ca. 383– 405, Jerome was commissioned by the archbishop of Rome to translate both the Old and New Testiments into Latin; this translation was likewise copied, translated and spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, primarily in the West. Jerome's translation is commonly known as the Latin Vulgate, and includes the Apocrypha from the Greek translation of the Old Testament.) Attic Greek remained the standard language in Constantinople and surrounding areas until it was conquored by the devout Islamic militany force of the invading Ottoman Turks, who suppressed the Attic Greek language in 1453 C.E. and renamed the city Istanbul. (Resistence kept Crete's local Greek dialect in common use until 1669 C.E.) When Greece became free in 1830 C.E., Crete's written dialect contributed to modern Greek's 'demotic' liturature, while Athens' and the Peloponnese's spoken dialect became the source of modern Greek's spoken dialect. More recently, a purified 'katharevusa' form of Greek was devised as an all- encompassing spoken and written medium, but numerous problems persist which education and media are attempting to resolve.
 
  


Strongs Concordance with Hebrew & Greek Lexicon – available from Blue Letter Bible

Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon – with Strong's Numbers. "The Old Testament Hebrew lexicon is Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Lexicon; this is keyed to the 'Theological Word Book of the Old Testament.' Also included are pronunciations of each word with alternate pronunciations if available. Bible Study Tools offers two Bible versions, King James and New American Standard, for studying within the Old Testament lexicons." Available on BibleStudyTools.com

New Testament Greek Lexicon – with Strong's Numbers. "The New Testament Greek lexicon based on Thayer's and Smith's Bible Dictionary plus others; this is keyed to the large Kittel and the 'Theological Dictionary of the New Testament.' Also included are pronunciations of each word with alternate pronunciations if available. Bible Study Tools offers two Bible versions, King James and New American Standard, for studying within the New Testament lexicons." Available on BibleStudyTools.com

Perseus General Search Tools – this resource is among the best and most powerful search engines available online: Access several lexicons, concordances, etc. for classical Greek, NT (Koine) Greek, as well as other writings and resources! This particular search engine includes searches in English, Greek, Latin, Old English, German and Old Norse. Available from The Perseus Digital Library

Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (CAL) – © Hebrew Union College (Jewish Institute of Religion). "A new dictionary of the Aramaic language, to be called The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, is currently in preparation by an international team of scholars, with headquarters at the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. This major scholarly reference work will cover all dialects and periods of ancient Aramaic, one of the principal languages of antiquity, with a literature of central importance for history and civilization, and especially for the Jewish and Christian religions. … The new lexicon is to be comprehensive in the following ways: 1) it will take in all of ancient Aramaic, not just selected portions; 2) it will be based on a new and thorough compilation of all Aramaic literature, not just on existing dictionaries; 3) it will take account of all modern scholarly discussion of the Aramaic language. … The current web site is a tool for scholarly research. It presumes that users are already familiar with the materials they are researching, and should not be misinterpreted as being a complete lexicon at this stage. Our intent is to put the actual lexicon online when at least 50% of all glosses are justified by extensive textual citations. When that occurs depends on funding levels"

Navigating the Bible II (The Torah) – MT. Online bar / bat mitzvah tutor: Study (with optional audio) translation, Torah, Haftarot, Brachot, Divrei Torah. Several other tools are also available through this awesome resource

Greek Grammar – a compilation primarily of Daniel B. Wallace's Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics and William B. Mounce's A Graded Reader of Biblical Greek

Numerous Informative, Scholarly, and Academic Papers – © Daniel B. Wallace. "Daniel B. Wallace has taught Greek and New Testament courses on a graduate school level since 1979. He has a Ph.D. from Dallas Theological Seminary, and is currently professor of New Testament Studies at his alma mater. His Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Zondervan, 1996) has become a standard textbook in colleges and seminaries. He is the senior New Testament editor of the NET Bible." Available from Bible.org

Greek Grammar on the Web – © 1999– 2010 Marc Huys. Roman Catholic. "The electronic gateway to the study of Ancient Greek." Marc Huys died in September 2011 and the original website was removed; however, it is being rebuilt, revised and updated by "Toon Van Hal" (under construction)

Let's Review Greek! – © Cornell College. Contains links to the basic resources (alphabet and pronounciation), Greek grammars (easy, intermediate and advanced), online exercises, and additional resources (including easy and intermediate readings)

A Greek Grammar for Colleges – © Herbert Weir Smyth. Available from The Perseus Digital Library

 


TextKit – Greek and Latin learning tools. "Textkit is the Internet's largest provider of free and fully downloadable Greek and Latin grammars and readers. With currently 146 free books to choose from, Greek and Latin learners have downloaded 642,546 grammars, readers and classical e-books." A backup of the site (24 July 2011) is available on Internet Archive

Ancient Greek Tutorials – "of the Department of Classics of the University of California, Berkeley, a project of Professor Donald Mastronarde and the Berkeley Language Center"

Greek Course (Athenaze): Study Aids – examines Athenian Greek, as taught in the first edition of Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek by Maurice Balme and Gilbert Lawall (Oxford University Press). A freeware Greek font (SP lonic) is required to view the Greek text on this site

Athenaze Supplimentary Exercises – © James F. Johnson. A helpful suppliment for use with Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek Book I and Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek Book II. Only accessible using Microsoft Explorer (does not allow Mozilla- based browsers to access the exercises)

NT Greek.Net – a basic introduction to NT (Koine) Greek; includes three courses on this subject. A shareware Greek font (SGreek) also available for download (required to view Greek text on this site)

QuickMem Hebrew and Greek – both of these programs are available on this webpage and simulate vocabulary flash cards. QuickMem Hebrew contains words that appear fifty (50) times or more, and is based mainly on the "lists and translations from Andrew Wergeland at the Norwegian Lutheran School of Theology"; QuickMem Greek contains words that appear ten (10) times or more, and is based mainly on "lists from Bruce M. Metzger's Lexical Aids for Students of New Testament Greek"

 


The Apostolic Bible Polyglot – © The Apostolic Press. Features the Septuagint (LXX) and Greek NT with Greek- English interlinear (a PDF for each book), concordances (PDF), English- Greek Index (PDF), Analytical Lexicon (PDF), Grammar of the Analytical Lexicon (PDF), and more

The Septuagint in the New Testament – © R. Grant Jones. "A summary overview of New Testament quotations from the Old Testament." See also the Notes on the Septuagint. Available on R. Grant Jones' Homepage
    

This section was originally intended as an introduction to textual criticism and exegetical resources. However, due to certain developments, it is no longer possible to provide links to resources that merely introduce this material. Thus, for the sake of clarity, it seemed necessary to provide links to more scholarly resources as well. Due to their complexity, textual criticism and exegesis are generally introduced to university students at the undergraduate (bachelor) level, while more indepth studies are reserved for students at the graduate (masters and doctorate) level of biblical, religious or divinity studies.
   Textual criticism (aka "lower criticism") is the art and science of reconstructing original texts (aka "autographs") from later copies, which carry different "family" characteristics that developed over time due to a variety of factors (incidental and intentional). Due to their significance and importance, autographs of NT writings were copied, translated and dispersed numerous times among Christians relatively soon after arriving at their original destination. When these copies (of the autographs) reached their various destinations (and perhaps even along the way), they too would be copied, translated and dispersed numerous times. This process then repeated itself with copies of copies, continuing until the present day. If incidental copyist errors or intentional copyist corruptions were made during copying process, they were not universal but unique and could often be used to trace its descendants (much like DNA is used to trace family relations, or Darwin's theory of evolution is presented using the tree diagram with multiple branches ultimately originating from a common source). The result is a family tree with multiple branches that sometimes intertwine, each carrying more and more characteristics that (like DNA) can be used to identify, organise and group copies according to common family traits. Most copyist errors or corruptions (especially significant ones) can be detected and corrected by comparing texts (with earlier texts and texts from other branches), thus allowing scholars to reconstruct texts that better reflect the autographs. The accuracy of any given family of copies can be determined by examining its history and by paleography (scribes had different skill levels, from novice to professional, which reflects in how they copied texts; the so- called "Alexandrian" family of texts are generally recognised as being more accurate and reliable). The date of any given manuscript can be determined (to varying degrees) by a variety of methods, including carbon dating (which destroys the sample in the process), or by the copyist adding the copy date (very rare), or by paleography.
   Paleography is a science that takes into consideration things like the writing style of the copyist, the inks and colours that they used, the materials that were written on (papyrus, parchment, palimpsests, paper, wax tablets, etc.) and how they were formatted (scroll, codex, rotuli, folded books, tabulae, et al.; size, layout, binding, et al.). Each of these were introduced, used, changed, and (in many cases) discontinued at specific times in history, and help specialtists in this field to identify roughly when and where these texts were copied while also helping them to distinguish authentic copies from later forgeries.
   Exegesis is the art of interpretation or critical interpretation, whereby the intended meaning of the author (of any given writing) is sought. Thus, the immediate and broader contexts must be considered. Who is being addressed (who is the original audience)? Where and when is it being said (historical, geographical, cultural, et al. context, in context of who is being addressed)? What is being said (what is the message, in context of the aforesaid considerations and present events)? Why is it being said (what is the goal or purpose of the message, in context of the aforesaid considerations)? Other questions might be asked, but these are some basic ones that help determine the immediate context. To determine the broader context, a deeper understanding of the subject (e.g., people, history, events, rituals, etc.) is required. In regards to the OT & NT, this broader context includes the bigger picture of everything that happened leading up to this passage and was to happen afterward (perhaps as a consequence), including what God revealed, proclaimed, prophecied, etc. before and what came to pass afterwards. Of significant importance is the establishment of the original covenant that God cut with Abraham (wherein God promised Abraham would be the father of many nations, and that land, et al. would be given to descendents of Sarah's son Isaac, that He would be their God, they would be His people, etc.), as well as the establishment of the old covenant (which included the promised land, establishment of God as their God and them as His people, and the Law of Moses along with its blessings and curses). These covenants were only valid among males and families of males who were circumcised in the flesh, including male slaves; everyone else was cut off from the covenant (including its blessings and curses) and could not remain with those who were circumcised into this covenant. This covenant was re-affirmed and re-established through Joshua before Israel entered the land promised to them, and remains applicable even to this day. However, in midst of Israel's inability to hold their end of the covenant, God foretold and prophesied that He would establish a new covenant to replace the old one, which would be established at the time of the promised Messiah. Thus, all Israel before and during the ministry of Jesus were looking forward to the Messiah. During Jesus' ministry (as recorded in the four Gospels), false messiahs were common; but unlike these false messiahs, Jesus fulfilled what the OT revealed about the Messiah, including the establishment of the new covenant, His sacrificial death (for the true forgiveness of sins) and His resurrection. These events provide the background context for the book of Acts, including the ascension of Jesus and the gift of the Holy Spirit to all baptised believers (given first to the circumcised Jewish believers, then to uncircumcised non- Jewish believers to demonstrate that a) God had accepted them apart from the old covenant requirements, and b) they could be baptised into the faith). These events also provide the broader context for the Epistles and other writings of the NT, as the early church unfolded (along with various questions, doubts, struggles and significant problems that arose among believers within different congregations throughout the Roman Empire). Recognising that Christ's return was further in the future than anticipated, that the persecution (imprisonment, torture and execution) of believers was increasing, and that many Apostles and witnesses were among those being martyred, it became necessary to preserve the Gospel in written form rather than merely in oral form. Thus, according to earliest accounts, the Apostle Matthew wrote the Gospel in Hebrew (which was later translated into Greek); the Apostle Peter proclaimed the Gospel to Mark, who then wrote it in Greek; Luke, an early non- Jewish convert to Christianity, researched many primary sources and interviewed numerous witnesses of Jesus' life, ministry and coinciding events before writing the Gospel in Greek; the Apostle John, likely aware of the other Gospels and likely responding to numerous errors and heresies threatening the early Church, wrote the Gospel to highlight certain detailed events, teachings and prayers of Jesus which both compliment and supplement the other Gospels. Thus, the Gospel of Jesus was recorded and preserved. When new and foreign so- called gospels arose, there was already in existence both authentic oral and written Gospel to expose their errors. These are the sources that the early Church Fathers used to oppose and condemn those latter writings and their teachers as heretical.

   Most of the links (below) are to scholarly resources, which are geared more for academics and scholars. Other links are to non- scholarly resources, which are geared more for the general public and attempts to to simplify things so that the general public can grasp it (with different levels of success). A major problem with taking scholarly resources and trying to make them accessible to the general public is that certain skills, details and background information (learned and developed over many years of university education, research and studies) are usually overlooked, ignored, and can be misrepresented or misunderstood. As a result, the public (in general) lack the skills and information needed to really understand and evaluate what is being presented to them. Consequently, the general public may become misled by incomplete and fragmented information (an incomplete picture of what is known by scholars), and end up with beliefs and conclusions that disagree with what scholars know to be true (the full picture). While this is problematic, it gets worse when some scholars (who know better) distort and misrepresent what is known to them in order to mislead people. As a result, other scholars have written responses and books intended to undo the damage, so that the general public might become better equipped to grasp and evaluate things. (Granted, if someone wants to learn more about textual criticism and exegesis, I highly recommend that they learn about these things in a university that teaches all sides fairly.)

The Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts (CSNTM) – "The Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts (CSNTM), under the umbrella of The Center for the Research of Early Christian Documents (CRECD), exists for the following purposes: 1) To make digital photographs of extant Greek New Testament manuscripts so that such images can be preserved, duplicated without deterioration, and accessed by scholars doing textual research. 2) To utilize developing technologies (OCR, MSI, etc.) to read these manuscripts and create exhaustive collations. 3) To analyze individual scribal habits in order to better predict scribal tendencies in any given textual problem. 4) To publish on various facets of New Testament textual criticism. 5) To develop electronic tools for the examination and analysis of New Testament manuscripts. 6) To cooperate with other institutes in the great and noble task of determining the wording of the autographa of the New Testament." For an updated list of recently discovered manuscripts (PDF), see this link from INTF

A Site Inspired by the Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism – ©1997– 2008 Robert Waltz, conceived by Rich Elliot. An informative (but not peer reviewed) website provided by an unrecognised textual critic who "attempts to cover all aspects of New Testament Textual Criticism in an orderly and fair fashion"

The Text of the New Testament : An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism – © Kurt and Barbara Aland (Eerdmans, 1989; paperback, 1995). 2nd edition. "A definitive introduction to New Testament textual criticism, this book includes a comparison of the major editions of the New Testament, detailed description and analysis of the manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, and discussion on the value of the early versions. This second edition contains two new supplementary essays as well as revised plates, tables, and charts" The Text of the New Testament : Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration – © Bruce M. Metzger (Oxford Press, 1992). 3rd edition. "For more than twenty- five years the standard account of the compilation and transmission of the New Testament, this text offers a comprehensive survey of ancient and newly- discovered manuscripts, and considers both the science and art of textual criticism as applied to the interpretation of manuscripts. Containing references to more than 150 additional books and articles dealing with Greek manuscripts, early versions, and critical studies of witnesses to the text of the New Testament, it covers a variety of textual problems and provides an objective account of the several schools of textual methodology. The third edition describes advances in textual criticism of the New Testament since 1964. The Text of the New Testament, 3/e remains a definitive resource for courses in biblical studies and the history of Christianity." NOTE: Although the statistics are outdated and some information is placed in appendices, this is an excellent resource and the last edition that does not have additions and modifications by Bart D. Ehrman Dethroning Jesus : Exposing Popular Culture's Quest to Unseat the Biblical Jesus – © Darrell L. Bock and Daniel B. Wallace (Thomas Nelson, 2007). This book addresses several misleading claims, arguments and challenges by scholars like Bart D. Ehrman (e.g., The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture, Lost Christianities and Misquoting Jesus), Elaine Pagels and James Tabor Reinventing Jesus : How Contemporary Skeptics Miss the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture – © J. Ed Komoszewski, M. James Sawyer and Daniel B. Wallace (Kregel, 2008). An excellent resource. Note: On page 279, footnote #2 adds a link to an updated catalog of recently discovered manuscripts (post- NA27). This link, however, does not work because the name of this PDF changes with every update. The most recent PDF catalog can be found on this link from INTF Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament : Manuscripts, Patristic, and Apocryphal Evidence – © Daniel B. Wallace (Kregel Academic, 2011). "In recent years popular culture has experienced a revival of interest in the early church and the beginning of the canonizing of Scripture. Extremely critical of the nature of the New Testament canon, however, many writers have suggested that the New Testament authors 'interrupted' Jesus and misquoted His message. This scholarly book presents a strong case for the historicity and accuracy of the Bible, refuting the accusation that the Bible is unreliable. From Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament, students of New Testament and textual criticism will learn how the New Testament was written, compiled, and transmitted. This book is a detailed rebuttal to confident remarks about the inaccuracies— indeed the corruption— of the New Testament. Features and Benefits: First book in the Text and Canon of the New Testament series. Edited by a world- class scholar of textual criticism, Daniel B. Wallace. Authoritative challenge to the popular books by Bart D. Ehrman"

The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture : The Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament – © Bart D. Ehrman (Oxford Press, 1993). This work reflects Ehrman's thesis that pseudepigraphal writings and variants found in some later copies of the New Testament were consciously made by orthodox scribes in response to various heresies. For the most part, this (1993 edition) is an excellent work; however, some of his claims and conclusions are extreme and do not adequately reflect the evidence. Ehrman presumes that his readers are fairly well acquainted and familiar with textual criticism; thus, this book is not intended for the general public. A recent updated and expanded edition (2011) is now available that includes almost 100 more pages of updates

The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research : Essays on the Status Questionis – © William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (ed. Bart D. Ehrman and Michael W. Holmes; 1995). "The present volume comprises a series of essays on the discrete aspects of New Testament textual criticism written by internationally recognized scholars in the field, all of them providing an authoritative statement of the status questionis. Although each essay has been structured in view of the requirements of its own subject matter …, the foci are developments that have transpired over the past fifty years, leading to to assessments of 'where we are now' as a result (as of mid- 1993). By no means can these essays be seen as a replacement of the standard introductions; indeed, knowledge of these basic works (but little more) is presupposed throughout the volume. But here for the first time is a collection of informed discussions of the current state of knowledge with respect to a wide range of important topics: Greek manuscripts (with separate articles on the papyri, the majuscules, the minuscules, and the lectionaries), the early versions (Diatessaron, Syriac, Latin, Coptic, Ethiopic, Armenian, and Georgian), patristic citations (Greek, Latin, and Syriac), studies of cribal habits, approaches to manuscript classification, the use of computers for textual criticism, recent apparatuses and criticial editions, methods for evaluating variant readings (the Majority text theory, thoroughgoing eclecticism, and reasoned eclecticism), and the use of textual data for early Christian social history. Each discussion includes an up- to- date bibliography of works relevant to the (sub-) field" (The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research, x–xi)

Encountering the Manuscripts : An Introduction to New Testament Paleography & Textual Criticism – © Philip W. Comfort (Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005). This book "offers an expert's introduction to New Testament paleography (the study of ancient writings and inscriptions) and textual criticism, giving readers a window into the transmission of the Bible in the earliest centuries of the church. Based on exhaustive experience and study, author Philip Comfort: Explores scribal participation in the production of the earliest New Testament writings. Gives an annotated list of all the significant Greek manuscripts and early versions. Assigns dates for the earliest New Testament manuscripts. Examines the 'nomina sacra' (sacred names) in the early New Testament manuscripts. Presents the history of textual variation in the early centuries of the church. Details various methods of recovering the original wording of the Greek New Testament. Provides concrete examples for the practice of textual criticism" (Encountering the Manuscripts, back cover)

The Text of the New Testament : Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration – © Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman (Oxford Press, 2005). 4th edition. "This thoroughly revised edition of Bruce M. Metzger's classic work is the most up- to- date manual available for the textual criticism of the New Testament. The Text of the New Testament, Fourth Edition, has been invigorated by the addition of Bart D. Ehrman— author of numerous best- selling books on the New Testament— as a coauthor. This revision brings the discussion of such important matters as the early Greek manuscripts and methods of textual criticism up to date, integrating recent research findings and approaches into the body of the text (as opposed to previous revisions, which compiled new material and notes into appendices). The authors also examine new areas of interest, including the use of computers in the collection and evaluation of manuscript evidence and the effects that social and ideological influences had upon the work of scribes. The standard text for courses in biblical studies and the history of Christianity since its first publication in 1964, The Text of the New Testament is poised to become a definitive resource for a whole new generation of students." This edition updates statistical data and reorganises information found in the third edition in a very useful and beneficial way, but also features numerous additions and modifications by Bart D. Ehrman which may prove problematic

An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and their Texts – © D. C. Parker (Cambridge University Press, 2008). "This is the first major English- language introduction to the earliest manuscripts of the New Testament to appear for over forty years. An essential handbook for scholars and students, it provides a thorough grounding in the study and editing of the New Testament text combined with an emphasis on the dramatic current developments in the field. Covering ancient sources in Greek, Syriac, Latin and Coptic, it describes the manuscripts and other ancient textual evidence, and the tools needed to study them; deals with with textual criticism and textual editing, describing modern approaches and techniques, with guidance on the use of editions; introduces the witness and textual study of each of the main sections of the New Testament, discussing typical variants and their significance. A companion website with full- color images provides generous amounts of illustrative material, bringing the subject alive for the reader" (An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and their Texts, back cover)

New Testament Text and Translation Commentary : Commentary on the Variant Readings of the Ancient New Testament Manuscripts and How They Relate to the Major English Translations – © Philip W. Comfort (Tyndale, 2008). "Scholars today have access to thousands of ancient manuscripts and manuscript fragments for the Greek New Testament, allowing for an inprecedented level of accuracy in discovering the original wording. Nevertheless, there exist a number of textual variants in the manuscripts, and scholars and Bible translation committees do not always agree on which wording is original. English Bible versions note many such instances in the page margins, but explanations are brief if present at all. The New Testament and Translation Commentary offers a convenient way to see how the standard English translations differ when there is a significant textual variant in the inderlying Greek manuscripts. For each passage, the textual data is presented in a clear, easy- to- read way. It is easy to see at a glance which English versions follow which Greek variant. In addition, New Testament scholar Philip W. Comfort gives helpful commentary on what is going on in the Greek text and what might have lef the translators to choose one reading over another. … In addition to passage- by- passage commentary, Comfort provides and introduction t the art of textual criticism, its importance for studying the New Testament, and the challenges Bible scholars and translators face" (New Testament Text and Translation Commentary, back cover)

The Reliability of the New Testament : Bart Ehrman and Daniel B. Wallace in Dialogue – © Robert B. Stewart, editor (Fortress Press, 2011). "This volume highlights points of agreement and disagreement between two leading scholars on the subject of the textual reliability of the New Testament: Bart Ehrman, James A. Gray Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and author of the best- selling book Misquoting Jesus : The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, and Daniel Wallace, Professor of New Testament Studies at Dallas Theological Seminary and Executive Director of the Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts. This conversation between Ehrman and Wallace allows the reader to see in print how each presents his position in light of the other's. Contributions follow from an interdisciplinary team featuring specialists in biblical studies, philosophy, and theology. The textual reliability of the New Testament is logically prior to its interpretation and thus important for the Christian religion. This book provides interested readers a fair and balanced case for both sides and allows them to decide for themselves: What does it mean for a text to be textually reliable? How reliable is the New Testament? How reliable is reliable enough?"
     

Misquoting Jesus : The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why – © Bart D. Ehrman (HarperOne, 2007). This work is dedicated to his mentor, Bruce M. Metzger, and seems to be Ehrman's attempt to take select information from Metzger's The Text of the New Testament and The Canon of the New Testament and his own work on The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture, then simplify them in a way that is accessible to the general public. On the positive side, he succeeds in simplifying this select information and making it accessible. On the negative side, Ehrman is very selective in what information he makes known (he does not always give readers a complete or accurate picture of what is known to scholars) and he often misrepresents it (either with information he carefully leaves out, or with misleading comments that he adds). Ehrman often abandons what he knows as a scholar, and misleads readers with unrealistic demands (e.g., the demand for original autographs) and conclusions that reflect his own personal doubts. He thus gives readers the false impression that the entire New Testament is utterly lost, corrupt, unreliable and beyond restoration— which Ehrman himself knows is untrue. For example, if his claims were true, then he could not 1) claim that certain passages are corrupt while others are not, since his claim is based on 2) a reconstruction of what he believes was written in the original autographs (which he denies is possible) Jesus, Interrupted : Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them) – © Bart D. Ehrman (HarperOne, 2009). "Ehrman skillfully demonstrates that the New Testament is riddled with contradictory views about who Jesus was and the significance of his life. Ehrman reveals that many of the books were written in the names of the apostles by Christians living decades later, and that central Christian doctrines were the inventions of still later theologians. Although this has been the standard and widespread view of scholars for two centuries, most people have never learned of it." In this book, Ehrman primarily argues for the higher critical (i.e., historical critical) method, and (using this method) comments on several textual variants and alleged contradictions. As with Misquoting Jesus (above), there are several strengths to this book but also many problems: Ehrman a) often overlooks significant details when addressing alleged contradictions (which demonstrate that they are not contradictory); b) does not give readers a complete or accurate picture of what is known to scholars (but is very selective in what he tells readers); c) often misrepresents information (by carefully leaving out significant information, and by adding misleading comments)

Ancient Hebrew Research Center – © Ancient Hebrew Research Center. "Teaching the Ancient Biblical Hebrew Language of the Bible Through the Study of the Ancient Hebrew Alphabet, Culture and Thought"

Hebrew Old Testament – a very informative list (with links) to numerous online resources for Hebrew texts, audio recordings of Hebrew texts, textual criticism, the Hebrew language, introduction (exegesis) and surveys, miscellaneous, bibliographies, discussions, web directories, etc. Available from Web Directory of Biblical Studies

Greek New Testament – a very informative list (with links) to numerous online resources for Greek texts, textual criticism, arguments in favour of the Majority Text, web directories for textual criticism, the Greek language, learning Greek, the language of the New Testament, etc. Available from Web Directory of Biblical Studies

 


Old Testament Apocrypha Controversy – © Don Closson. Available from Probe Ministries

A Handbook of New Testament Exegesis – © Craig L. Blomberg with Jennifer Foutz Markley (Baker Academic, 2010). Includes chapters on Textual Criticism, Translation and Translations, Historical- Cultural Context, Literary Context, Word Studies, Grammar, Interpretive Problems, Outlining, Theology, Application, Summary, and a Checklist for Doing Biblical Exegesis (Appendix).

  

Archæology

What is Archæology?

History of Archæology

Dating Methods
and some critiques

Archæological Websites

 

This is an example of "Where should I put this section?" Originally it was under Biblical Resources, but now that I have an Archæology section, it seems more reasonable to stick it here.
   This section features mostly papyri and other manuscript evidences for the Old Testament and Intertestimental writings, but I also intend to add links to archæological sites.
   If you are interested in general information on archæology, its history, dating methods, etc., then please check out the general information section (above).




The Orion Center for the Study of Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature – "established in 1995 as part of the Institute for Jewish Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem" providing "many resources for the study of the Scrolls, as well as information about the Center's activities and programs"

Dead Sea Scrolls – features a translation or student paraphrase of several scrolls and fragments. Available on Jewish and Christian Literature

The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls – © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Features photos and translation for numerous scrolls, including the Great Isaiah Scroll, War Scroll, Temple Scroll, Commentary on the Habakkuk Scroll and Community Rule Scroll. See also their information video

Scrolls from the Dead Sea : The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship – available from Library of Congress Exhibitions

The Dead Sea Scrolls – features a timetable of discovery & debate, as well as several useful links

Educational Site: Dead Sea Scrolls – available from West Semitic Research Project

Dead Sea Scrolls & Qumran – features several useful academic links. A backup of the site (8 Oct 2010) is available on Internet Archive

Codex: Resources for Biblical, Theological, and Religious Studies – © Tyler F. Williams (Kings College; Edmonton, AB). Previously known as [email protected]. The previous website's description is absent, but still applies to the new one: "This site contains various resources for Biblical Studies, Old Testament Hebrew, religion & popular culture, theology, film, and more … including Old Testament, classical Hebrew, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint, biblical studies software, the Bible & film, religion & popular culture, biblical interpretation and hermeneutics, among other things related to the academic study of the Bible." A list containing critical editions of the Dead Sea Scrolls is also available

Notes on the Septuagint – © 2000 R. Grant Jones. Available from R. Grant Jones' Home Page





  

This section was also originally part of the Biblical Resources section, but has been moved here. In general, this section features links to papyri and manuscript evidences from the New Testament and various Early Church documents, but I also intend to add links to various archaeological sites.
   If you are interested in general information on archæology, its history, dating methods, etc., then please check out the general information section (above).




The Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts (CSNTM) – "The Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts (CSNTM), under the umbrella of The Center for the Research of Early Christian Documents (CRECD), exists for the following purposes: 1) To make digital photographs of extant Greek New Testament manuscripts so that such images can be preserved, duplicated without deterioration, and accessed by scholars doing textual research. 2) To utilize developing technologies (OCR, MSI, etc.) to read these manuscripts and create exhaustive collations. 3) To analyze individual scribal habits in order to better predict scribal tendencies in any given textual problem. 4) To publish on various facets of New Testament textual criticism. 5) To develop electronic tools for the examination and analysis of New Testament manuscripts. 6) To cooperate with other institutes in the great and noble task of determining the wording of the autographa of the New Testament"

New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room – © Universität Münster Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung (i.e. Muenster University Institute for New Testament Textual Research). This website is primarily in German (but contains both German and English articles, information, etc.) and is designed to be viewed using Firefox, Opera and Safari browsers (Google Chrome also works great, even when German text is translated into English; but Microsoft's Internet Explorer does not display properly). This website provides access to images of many significant New Testament manuscripts

Institute of Papyrology – © Universität Heidelberg (i.e. University of Heidelberg). This website is in German, but Google Chrome provides a relatively decent English translation of the text. This website provides access to images of many Greek, Arabic, Coptic and Demotic papyri (including Septuagint and NT)

Complete List of Greek NT Papyri – an informative chart listing most, if not all, known NT papyri, their content, and location (as of 2008); also features image links to most of these papyri and an abundance of other unseful biblical links

Catalogue of New Testament Papyri and Codices (2nd – 10th century) – © K. C. Hanson, Fortress Press. An excellent resource featuring dates, locations, etc. of papyri known to date (not many images, though)

Ancient Greek Manuscripts on the WWW – features "information about Ancient Greek Manuscripts. These sites contain either images of significant manuscripts or machine readable forms of those documents"





Unearthed : The Talpiot Tomb – © Legacy Pictures. This informative documentary investigates Jacobovici's claims in The Lost Tomb of Jesus film (below). This film highlights several significant facts and details that Jacobovici overlooked (or ignored), and critiques his claims and conclusions with known facts. Several experts (including some that Jacobovici interviewed and misrepresented) are interviewed to give viewers an accurate, true and clearer picture of what is known about this tomb, what was found there, the markings and inscriptions on the ossuaries, etc. PLEASE NOTE: This film is no longer available from Legacy Pictures

Expedition Bible : The Jesus Tomb Unmasked – © 2008 SourceFlix, Inc. Very similar to Unearthed: The Talpiot Tomb (above). You can purchase the DVD from SourceFlix, or watch the video available on Dr. William Lane Craig's YouTube videos

The Lost Tomb of Jesus – © 2007. Film maker and journalist Simcha Jacobovici (aka The Naked Archaeologist) connects the James ossuary with nine others discovered in the 1980s (which seems plausible). Believing that these ossuaries belong to a family tomb (which also seems likely), this film pretty much falls apart when he desperately tries to argue that the ossuary of "Yeshua bar Yosef" belongs to Jesus of Nazareth, "Maria" belongs to his mother Mary, "Mariameme e Mara" belongs to Mary Magdalene (who is said to be his wife), "Matia" belongs to his disciple Matthew, "Yose" belongs to his brother Jose (aka Joseph), "Yehuda bar Yeshua" belongs to Jesus' son Judah, and the remaining three unlabelled ossuaries belong to three unnamed relatives. While Jacobovici makes use of DNA testing, he only tested the ossuaries of Yeshua and the alleged "Mariameme," not the son of Jesus to see if he is related to "Mariameme." Attempts to link a symbol on the tomb entrance to an ancient Christian symbol lacks adequate proof, and other evidence suggests that it is nothing more than a masonry mark to keep ossuaries with their appropriate lids. Jacobovici's claim that "Yose" is shorthand for "Joseph" is valid; but his attempt to twist and turn the alleged name "Mariameme e Mara" into Mary Magdalene does not work. (An expert in the field, featured in the film Unearthed: The Talpiot Tomb, points out that the alleged name "Mariameme e Mara" is actually being misread and contains two names: "Maria kai Mara," thus this ossuary contained the bones of at least two people (which is also a common practice). Jacobovici's attempt to make "Matia" into Matthew is also problematic, since Matthew has no reason to be there (if he is claimed to be Jesus' disciple). While Judah is unquestionably the son of the man named Jesus buried in this tomb, this does not imply that this particular Jesus is the Jesus of the New Testament. Since DNA testing was NOT done on any of the other ossuaries, there is no evidence to prove (either way) who is related to whom; even so, ossuaries were commonly emptied out (on the ground of the tomb) and reused for later descendents. (Bones for over 30 people were found on the ground near the ossuaries of this particular tomb.) Jacobovici downplays the fact that names like "Maria," "Yeshua," "Yosef," etc. are commonly found together in family tombs, but many experts disagree with him (there is significant evidence to support the experts). Jacobovici throws some other insignificant things into the mix, but they seem to be intended as a distraction so he can start calling his theories "facts." In the end, Jacobovici offers an interesting conspiracy theory but it is fatally flawed and unconvincing. Even some scholars who love conspiracy theories will point out that the tomb is unlikely that of Jesus of Nazareth (e.g., according to one Gnostic writing, Jesus had a daughter— not a son). Additional resources are available on The Discovery Channel. I highly recommend watching Unearthed: The Talpiot Tomb (above)

  

Egyptian

Hittite

Canaanite

Mesopotamian

Philistine

Assyrian

Babylonian

Persian

Greek

Roman

Apologetics vs. Early Schisms & Heresies

Chart of Early Church Fathers – © ReligionFacts.com. "This chart provides basic facts on the early church fathers, including the Apostolic Fathers, the Apologists, the Cappadocian Fathers, and other important early Greek and Latin fathers." Available from ReligionFacts.com

A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principle Sects and Heresies – © 1999 Henry Wace and William C. Piercy. An outstanding, informative, and fairly detailed resource on people (orthodox and heretical), documents, and events of the first six hundred years. Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library

Foxe's Book of Martyrs – © John Foxe, edited by William Byron Forbush. Quaker. Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library. See also Foxe's Book of Martyrs from the Internet Sacred Text Archive. Learn more about John Foxe from the Christian Cyclopedia or this book from the Catholic Encyclopedia

Notes on Church History – Compiled by R. Grant Jones. "A timeline of Church history. Emphasis is on the first few centuries." Available from R. Grant Jones' Home Page

 


Compiled Allusions to the NT in the Ante- Nicene Fathers – available from e-Catena

Cross Reference Table: Writings & Authorities – available from The Development of the Canon of the New Testament

The Apostolic Fathers – © Kirsopp Lake (Loeb Classical Library). Includes the Greek texts of 1 & 2 Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, Didache, Barnabas, The Shepherd of Hermas, The Martyrdom of Polycarp, and the Epistle of Dionetus. "Based on the text of the Loeb Classical Library." Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library Writings of the Apostolic Fathers – Orthodox (Greek). An English translation of the writings of the Apostolic Fathers. Available from the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America Writings of the Early Church Fathers – © Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and Philip Schaff. Ante- Nicene, Nicene, and Post- Nicene Fathers. Available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library. See also Church Fathers from Catholic First (Roman Catholic) Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts – edited by Roger Pearse. These texts supplement the 39 volume Writings of the Early Church Fathers (above) with additional translated material The Fathers of the Church – Roman Catholic. Available from New Advent Early Church Documents – this resource is no longer available from The Ecole Initiative The St. Pachomius Library – contains numerous links to "uncopyrighted English translations of the Church Fathers, the acts of the Christian martyrs, the proceedings of the Councils, the lives of the early saints, etc."

 

Miscellaneous
collections from non- Christian sites

Book Resources
(select authors)

Apologetics vs. Modern Schisms & Heresies

This section includes links to resources or collections that address quasi- and pseudo- Christian religions (including cults and certain schisms), their beliefs, creeds and teachings which conservative Christian apologists consider to be problematic, erroneous, or heretical. Additional material may be found under creeds or catechisms (left column), or under a specific denomination (right column). If you are searching for apologetic material on other religious beliefs unrelated to Christianity, links are available in the next section (below).
   For an examination of the beliefs, creeds and doctrines of these schisms, cults and pseudo- Christian religions, links may be available under the Other Side of the Fence section (below).

 


Ravi Zacharias International Ministries – "to support, expand, and enhance the preaching and teaching ministry of Ravi Zacharias, distinctive in its strong evangelistic and apologetic foundation, intended to touch both the heart and the intellect of the thinkers and opinion- makers of society with the Truth of the Gospel of Jesus Christ"

Issues, Etc. – Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). Features numerous topics on both recent and historical events; guest speakers are either apologists or representatives from various conservative denominations. "Defending the faith … teaching the truth." An On- demand audio archive (2008– current) is available "on demand" from Issues, Etc. The older MP3 and WMA audio archive (2003– 2008) is no longer available from KFUO AM radio. A journal and other links are also available

SoundWitness – Confessional Lutheran (LC–MS). "A Lutheran apologetics ministry dedicated to keeping the 'false' out of doctrine." Primarily addresses Watchtower / Jehovah's Witnesses, but now also extends into addressing the erroneous beliefs and teachings of other sects and cults

Reasonable Faith with William Lane Craig – © Reasonable Faith. This website "aims to provide in the public arena an intelligent, articulate, and uncompromising yet gracious Christian perspective on the most important issues concerning the truth of the Christian faith today, such as: the existence of God; the meaning of life; the objectivity of truth; the foundation of moral values; the creation of the universe; intelligent design; the reliability of the Gospels; the uniqueness of Jesus; the historicity of the resurrection; [and] the challenge of religious pluralism. Reasonable Faith features the work of philosopher and theologian Dr. William Lane Craig in order to carry out its three-fold mission: to provide an articulate, intelligent voice for biblical Christianity in the public arena; to challenge unbelievers with the truth of biblical Christianity; [and] to train Christians to state and defend Christian truth claims with greater effectiveness" (cf. About Reasonable Faith). Includes links to scholarly articles, popular articles, select debate transcripts, questions and answers, videos and audios (of debates, talks, interviews), podcasts (Reasonable Faith and Defenders), current events blog, open forums and more. Also check out their YouTube sites (Reasonable Faith and Dr Craig videos)

Walter Martin's Religious InfoNet – "to provide answers to those searching for spiritual direction in their lives, as well as encourage and educate Christians to stand up for their faith"

Answers in Action (AIA) – "a dynamic non- profit, evangelical, Christian organization based in Costa Mesa, California, which trains individuals to think logically and reasonably about all things"

Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM) – "to equip Christians with good information on doctrine, various religious groups (Mormonism, Jehovah's Witnesses, etc.), cults, Evolution, New Age, and related subjects"

Alpha & Omega Ministries – © Alpha & Omega Ministries

Department of Christian Defense – © Edward L. Dalcour. "The purpose of the Department of Christian Defense is to proclaim and defend the gospel of Jesus Christ against those who controvert the essentials of historic biblical faith. Also to provide information to educate and equip Christians to reasonably and confidently share their faith with members of non- Christian cults and anyone that denies the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith: The doctrine of the ontological Trinity; one eternal God; Jesus as the eternal God; the physical resurrection of Jesus Christ, justification through faith alone, Scripture as the sole infallible authoritative regula fidei ('rule of faith') for the church 'sufficient above all things,' (cf. Athanasius, De Synodis 6); virgin birth; etc."

Cult Awareness & Information Centre – "CAIC educates the public about the technique used by ALL cults and spiritually abusive churches, and how to counteract them. If you have a family member of a friend involved in a cult make sure you learn to identify a cult by it's behavior (not doctrinal differences). … We have read message after message from confused individuals, many of whom spent years on their own trying to figure their way out of the traps of oppressive religious groups until one day stumbling upon the CAIC web site. They tell us that the information on our web site was like a 'light bulb' that turned on and helped them to find their way out of a mental maze"

Reasoning from the Scriptures – © Ron Rhodes. Reformed (Calvinist). This is "a discipleship ministry that exists to help you grow strong in the Word of God and equip you to become knowledgeable in the application of biblical wisdom"

Spotlight Ministries – "dedicated to upholding and defending the Christian faith. This site contains information on various new religious movements, cults, the occult, and the New Age Movement, and examines them from a Christian perspective. There are also many articles of general religious interest, apologetics, and theology"

Stand to Reason Commentaries: Apologetics – "working to build active, equipped, engaging ambassadors for Jesus Christ." Available from Stand to Reason

Watchman Fellowship, Inc. – "a ministry of Christian discernment, focusing on cults and new religious movements. Watchman Fellowship serves the Christian and secular community as a resource for education, counseling, and non- coercive intervention and evangelism training." Also see their article on Heresies : Then and Now. Available on Watchman Fellowship, Inc

FactNet – designed "to protect the most universal and basic constitutional freedom, the single freedom that is an essential prerequisite to the meaningful exercise of all of our other freedoms— freedom of mind! Factnet focuses on protecting freedom of mind from harms caused by all forms of mind control and unethical influence. In its earlier years (1993– 2001) Factnet focused on mind control and unethical influence as was commonly found in destructive cults. In 2002 it has expanded its mission to also cover mind control and unethical influence as found in governments, corporations, social organizations, advertising / marketing, political organizations, the military and family groups"

Apologetics Index – "This site offers information that a) helps equip Christians to logically present and defend the Christian faith, and that b) encourages Christians and non- Christians to understand, evaluate and compare various religious claims"

Cults.co.nz (New Zealand Cults, Sects, Religions, Christian Organisations, and other groups) – © Ian Mander. "Although called 'The New Zealand Cult List', the list is now much broader than just a list of the cults in this country. It contains both religious and secular groups, Christian and non- Christian groups. Some individuals are also included. The list is written from a Christian perspective and is primarily intended as a resource for New Zealand Christians. However, it may still be of some use to non- Christians, and people in other countries"

The Rick A. Ross Institute – © Rick Ross. "The Rick A. Ross Institute (RI) of New Jersey is a nonprofit, tax- exempt 501(c)(3) organization devoted to public education and research. RI's mission is to study destructive cults, controversial groups and movements and to provide a broad range of information and services easily accessible to the public for assistance and educational purposes. RI maintains a large archive on the Internet and is available to assist researchers, the media, professionals and those concerned with accurate information about various cults, groups and movements and related issues of interest. RI is an institutional member of the New Jersey Library Association" (cf. Mission Statement)

The Cult News Network – "The Cult News Network is a daily listing of interesting links about cults, controversial groups and ideological movements.… The purpose of the Network is twofold: First, it provides a resource for people interested in controversial groups.… The second purpose of the Network is to be fun! The Network encourages users to participate through free membership, and offers an interesting, often amusing source of ever- changing content. Registered users can submit links, comment on articles, and vote on the value / interest of each item" (cf. Help page)

The Center for Apologetics Research – designed "to equip Christian leaders and laymen in the Former Soviet Union (FSU) for discernment, defense of the faith and cult evangelism (1 Peter 3:15, Jude 3, 2 Timothy 2:25) by providing training and resource materials in their national languages." This website is originally in Russian, but the link I have provided is to the English translation. Some links may take you to articles in the Russian language, but if you use Google Chrome (or similar resources that translate websites) you should be able to read them

equip.org – © Christian Research Institute (CRI). "Exists to provide Christians worldwide with carefully researched information and well- reasoned answers that encourage them in their faith and equip them to intelligently represent it to people influenced by ideas and teachings that assault or undermine orthodox, biblical Christianity." Also features The Bible Answer Man, with Hank Hanegraaff. Also see their CRInstitute Channel on YouTube. Please Note: While I believe Hanegraaff is fairly solid in his evaluation, refutation and teachings on most issues, it has come to my attention that he now supports the Local Church movement of Watchman Nee, which is recognised as being heretical. His support of this movement seems to be based primarily on their convictions and teachings on the Christian lifestyle, but Hanegraaff seems to overlook significant problems with their theology including their modalistic understanding of God (which they erroneously claim to be the doctrine of the Trinity)

 




Christian Way – © Christian Way, Inc. "If you are a Christian Scientist: We care deeply about you! Mrs. Eddy said, 'The time for thinkers has come.' We challenge you to browse this site and think about the evidence it offers. … If you are reading Science and Health and considering becoming a Christian Scientist: We hope you'll read this site carefully and balance it against the claims and promises that you are reading about in Science and Health and hearing from the Christian Science Church. It's your decision whether or not to become a follower of Mary Baker Eddy, but we want you to have enough information to make an informed choice. … If you are a former Christian Scientist: We are here for you! Let us know how we can be a spiritual or emotional encouragement to you. If you are a Christian sharing with a Christian Scientist: We are delighted that you have found us and hope that you will find our materials helpful. If you have questions or concerns about sharing with your Christian Science friends and loved ones, we would be happy to help you in any way we can. Feel free to contact us with questions, concerns, or prayer requests"

Christian Science – a collection of writings addressing Christian Science. "Christian Science teaches that reality is an interpretation of Divine Mind, that Jesus was not the Christ, that His sacrifice did not clean from sin, that sickness and evil are illusions, and that the Bible can only be understood correctly through its teachings." Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)

Christian Science – © 2000 Watchman Fellowship, Inc. A brief profile on Christian Science including an overview of its history, problematic doctrines, and a Biblical response to those doctrines. Available from Watchmen Fellowship, Inc




Quotes.Watchtower.CA – "A collection of quotes from literature published by the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society: '… delightful, correct words of truth …' " Please Note: This is a mirror site of the original Canadian site, which was shut down after it was sued & acquired by the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. Read more about this case and its outcome from ReligiousNewsBlog.com. A PDF copy of the settlement is also available

JW Facts – © Paul Grundy

Six Screens of the Watchtower – © SixScreensoftheWatchtower.com. "Our mission is to expose the real truth behind the destructive cult known as the Jehovah's Witnesses. Active Witnesses are discovering the real 'truth' and are now realizing that there is life after The Watchtower"

The Watchtower Lies – © Watchtowerlies

  Beyond Jehovah's Witnesses – "This site contains information for: People who have left the Witnesses; People who are thinking of leaving; People who have been forced to leave; People who are thinking of joining. We are not here to 'de- convert' you. If you are happy as a Jehovah's Witness, then this site is of only academic interest to you"

Free Minds – "promoting awareness of the Watchtower and its authoritarian tactics." Numerous audio and video files are also available from RandyTV.com

Jehovah's Witnesses – Numerous detailed and useful articles that examine the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses, some of their doctrinal pamphlets, and their New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Includes grammatical considerations. Available from the Department of Christian Defense

Jehovah's Witnesses – a collection of writings addressing Jehovah's Witnesses. "The Jehovah's Witnesses go door- to- door, want you to do 'book' studies with them, and teach doctrines not in line with the Bible. They are persistent and well trained by the Watchtower Organization." Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)

Watchtower Information Service – "your source for info on Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Society." See also their links to other (ex-) JW sites section

Jehovah's Witnesses – "Jehovah's Witnesses consider themselves to be the only true Christians. However, their organization— the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society— denies and / or contradicts several of the essential doctrines of the Christian faith." Available on Apologetics Index

JW Files: Research on Jehovah's Witnesses – contains numerous scans from and articles addressing Watchtower doctrines

Jehovah's Witnesses (Articles) – "articles on Jehovah's Witnesses are available from The Watchman Expositor. Many terms in these articles are linked to the Index of Cults and Religions for easier reading and research." Available from Watchmen Fellowship, Inc

Jehovah's Witnesses – an introductory summary on the origin, world view, teaching, preaching, rules and regulations of the Jehovah's Witnesses. Available from the Dialog Center




Mormons in Transition – © Institute for Religious Research. "A non- denominational, non- profit Christian foundation devoted to the study of religious claims in light of history and the Bible." Indepth and includes abundant resources in response to the Book of Abraham, Book of Mormon, Alleged References to the First Vision, Gospel Principles (Teaching Manual), Joseph Smith, Doctrine and the Bible, Mormon History, and more. Other resources include the Book of Mormon (1830), scanned images of the entire Book of Commandments (1833) and Doctrines & Covenants (1835), Book Reviews, Personal Stories, Salvation Information, links to Support Groups and more. Available from the Institute for Religious Research

Mormonism – Numerous detailed and useful articles that examine the doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints (LDS), the Book of Mormon, and some other considerations. Available from the Department of Christian Defense

Mormonism – a collection of writings addressing the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS). "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints, commonly known as the Mormon church, teaches doctrines in direct opposition to historic Christianity, yet it claims to be the true church of Jesus Christ. Is Mormonism really Christian? We hope to help you answer that question here." Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)




Cult Awareness & Information Centre: Local Church of Witness Lee – includes articles on their history, practices, strategies for evangelism, exclusiveness, certain doctrines, and controversies with Christians. Available from the Cult Awareness and Information Centre

The Local Church – includes an overview of Witness Lee's "Local Church" and related organisations, their translation of Scriptures (The Recovery Version – RcV) and numerous articles. Available on Apologetics Index

'Local Church' Information Site – © 2003 Daniel Azuma. "The purpose of this web resource is to provide a free library of information and research materials on the 'Local Church' of Witness Lee, including articles, essays, personal testimonies both from current and former members, and web links." This site is primarily an information site rather than an apologetics site, though some apologetic material may be found. Includes a website list of their "critics"

 



Oneness Pentecostals – Numerous detailed and useful articles that examine the doctrines of Oneness Pentecostalism. Includes grammatical considerations. Available from the Department of Christian Defense

Oneness Pentecostal – a collection of writings addressing Oneness Pentecostalism. "Oneness Pentecostal theology is a false doctrine that denies the Trinity, states there is only one person in the Godhead, that you must be baptized to be saved, and that speaking in tongues is a necessary sign for salvation. Oneness Pentecostal theology is not biblical." Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)

Oneness Pentecostalism – © 2000 Watchman Fellowship, Inc. A brief profile on Oneness Pentecostalism including an overview of its history, problematic doctrines, and a Biblical response to those doctrines. Available from Watchmen Fellowship, Inc

Refuted: 60 Questions on the Godhead – a response to the "60 Questions on the Godhead" published by the United Pentecostal Church International. Available from the Interactive Bible




Examination of the Council of Trent (1565– 1573) – Martin Chemnitz. Confessional Lutheran. See Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent (4 vols.; translated by Fred Kraemer; St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, 1971– 1986)

"Chemnitz analyzed the canons and decrees of the Council of Trent in four books and showed by exhaustive evidence from Scripture and from both the most ancient and the purer among the more modern teachers of the church where the Council of Trent had departed from the teaching of Scripture. In the first of these volumes, in the section on Scripture and Tradition, he worked out the so- called formal principle of the Reformation, that the Scripture, and not tradition or a combination of the Scripture and tradition, is the source and norm of doctrine in the Christian church.    "[The] first volume, which appeared in 1565, covers the chief articles of the Christian faith. In the remaining three volumes he treats with equal clarity the sacraments and the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, which the Council of Trent had sought to defend.    "The Examen became famous at once. It was translated into German by Georg Nigrinus, into French by M. Vassorius, and by 1582 the section concerning traditions had been translated and published in English. The Examen is widely acknowledged not only as a masterful polemic against the canons and decrees of the Council of Trent but also as a thorough exposition of the faith and teaching of the adherents of the Augsburg Confession. It has earned not only the highest praise of Lutherans but also the respect of noted Roman Catholics." Martin Chemnitz, "Biographical Sketch of Martin Chemnitz," in Part 1 (4 vols.; vol. 1 in Examination of the Council of Trent; translated by Fred Kraemer; St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, 1971), 1:21– 22

Novus Ordo Watch – Catholic (Old Roman). "Novus Ordo Watch has one simple purpose: it is that of an educational resource. Our purpose is to document, collect, archive, and preserve articles, news reports, historic and modern photographs, books, diaries, translations, historic audio and video tape footage on the Catholic Church both pre- 1958 and post- 1958. This activity on our part to archive and preserve important documents will prove of grave historical importance in the future. It will consitute a historical record of current primary sources dealing with the Catholic Church." See their section on Benedict XVI True Catholic – Catholic (Old Roman). "It is likely that most of you think that the 'Catholic Church' now centered in Rome, in the Vatican, is the Catholic Church. Since 1958 (after the death of Pope Pius XII on October 9, 1958), the holders of offices there, have usurped the name of the Catholic Church from which they of their own free will departed. They left the faith, and therefore they left the Church that was founded by Christ on the apostles with Peter as its head. Their defection from the faith is something we must prove and that is the burden of much of the literature that you will find in this website" Patrick Pollock – © Patrick John Pollock. Catholic (Old Roman). This website used to include numerous tracts and writings (by Patrick Pollock), but many of them have been turned into books which he now sells online. These writings include 101 Heresies of Anti- Pope John Paul II (aka Karol Wojtyla) and 101 Heresies of Anti- Pope Benedict XVI (aka Joseph Ratzinger), which compares the heretical teachings of Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI with what the Catholic Church has historically taught (up until Vatican I)

The Unification Church – a fairly detailed overview of the Unification Church, its history, beliefs, doctrines, and some other interesting information. Available from The Religious Movements Page. PLEASE NOTE: The founding editor of this project (Jeffrey K. Hadden) died in 2003. The new editor- in- chief (Douglas E. Cowan) is updating and moving the entire project from the University of Virginia website (now offline) to its new home on the University of Waterloo (not yet available). A backup of the site (11 Dec 2007) is available on Internet Archive

Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity – a brief overview of the history, beliefs and doctrines of the Unification Church, along with Scriptural responses to several of its more problematic beliefs and doctrines. Another informative link is The Unification Church: Moonshine for the Soul. Available from Watchman Fellowship, Inc

Unification Church : Christian or Cult? – © John Beardsley (Biblical Discernment Ministries). Available on The Beardsley Ministry Homepage

The Unification Church – © Matt Slick. A very brief overview of the Unification Church. Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)

About the Unification Church – A brief overview of the Unification Church, with links to numerous articles that demonstrate (from Scripture) that it "is— at best— a cult of Christianity." Available on Apologetics Index

Reverend Moon – © Let Us Reason Ministries. This article continues for several linked pages (i.e. parts 2 and 3)









Universalism – a collection of writings addressing Universalism. "Universalism is the teaching that through the atonement of Jesus, every person who ever lived will ultimately be saved. It is a relatively small movement in America. But this error can have some serious ramifications. Does the Bible teach that everyone who has ever lived will be saved? No. It doesn't. Find out why here." Available from Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM)




Jesse Duplantis and Mormonism – a brief article noting some parallels between the doctrines of Jesse Duplantis and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Available from the Department of Christian Defense

Heresies of the Word Faith Movement – a list of Scripturally problematic or heretical quotes from various Word Faith leaders. A  backup copy (19 April 2008) of this page is available on Internet Archive

Heresies of the Word Faith Movement – © Damon Whitsell. Contains a list of quotes from numerous Word Faith leaders, along with Scripture passages that they contradict

The Lamp Ministry: Word of Faith Movement – © Hughie Seaborn. Available from The Lamp Ministry

The Word of Faith Movement – an introductory summary of the Word of Faith Movement's history, beliefs and teachings, etc. Please Note: This webpage is published in Danish and requires Google Translate (or similar) to roughly translate it into English. Available from the (now closed and archived) Dialogcentret

Christianity in Crisis (book) – © Hank Hanegraaff. An audio resource (with recordings of Word Faith leaders) is also available on YouTube (parts 1, 2, 3 and 4), which can be used to supplement the book. A more recent update of this resource is Christianity in Crisis : The 21st Century by the same author